Oleh : I.Bambang Sugiharto
Wacana seni di Indonesia telah banyak memperbincangkan perlunya konsep-konsep, paradigma dan kategori-kategori khas Indonesia baik dalam penelaahan sejarah, teori estetik, maupun strategi kebudayaan umumnya. Namun membaca berbagai wacana itu selalu saja terasa ada sesuatu yang mengganjal. Misalnya, ada kecenderungan untuk buru-buru bicara tentang paradigma macam apa yang seyogianya digunakan. Dan biasanya lalu digali-galilah khasanah tradisi Indonesia, lantas dipas-paskan sebagai “paradigma” yang bersifat “khas Indonesia”. Dalam rangka ini lantas ada yang keasyikan dan seperti menemukan kerangka “estetik nasional” yang elemen-elemennya konon ditemukan dalam “puncak-puncak” semua tradisi etnik di Indonesia. Terhadap kerangka estetik macam ini biasanya segera saja orang bertanya : “ Bila karya seni saya tak memenuhi kriteria estetik macam itu, apa itu berarti tidak indonesiawi?” atau “ Apakah dengan adanya kriteria itu berarti bahwa saya harus berkesenian secara begitu , agar bisa disebut otentik?” . Pertanyaan-pertanyaan spontan yang penting dan ternyata tak mudah dijawab juga.
Ada kecenderungan kuat pula dalam wacana itu untuk mengambil alih begitu saja konsep-konsep tentang “paradigma” dari dunia sains tanpa cukup waspada bahwa di dunia seni konotasi “paradigma” bisa berbeda. Juga biasanya dengan cepat mata rantai berbagai aliran yang muncul di dunia Barat dijadikan semacam rujukan utama dalam memandang pola “sejarah seni”, misalnya: alur yang kurang lebih linier, suksesi dominasi aliran/gaya, situasi sosial-politik yang berinteraksi di dalamnya, dsb.dsb. Dan dibayangkan bahwa sejarah seni di Indonesia pun kira-kira mesti dilihat seperti itu, tanpa waspada bahwa ada begitu banyak hal dalam situasi perjalanan kesenian di Indonesia yang mungkin sedemikian unik sehingga “pola sejarah” macam itu sesungguhnya tak bisa dikenakan pada konteks Indonesia tanpa jatuh menjadi artifisial.
Dalam kecenderungan itu semua, yang seringkali dilupakan adalah pertanyaan yang sebenarnya lebih mendasar, yaitu : apakah kita memang membutuhkan “paradigma” ? ; “paradigma” dalam artian apa ? ; dan untuk apa ? . Ibaratnya kita itu begitu repot memilih desain kacamata, sementara tak pernah dipertanyakan dahulu apakah kita memang memerlukan kacamata dan kalau pun memerlukannya, kacamata jenis apa, misalnya jenis plus atau minus , anti air (kacamata renang), anti api (kacamata tukang las), atawa malahan tiga-dimensi (seperti untuk nonton film).
“Paradigma” dalam sains
Abad 20 adalah abad yang agaknya paling menarik dalam dunia sains, bukan karena berbagai temuannya kian menakjubkan - temuan apa pun kini makin menjadi hal yang biasa saja- ,melainkan karena belum pernah sebelumnya sains mencapai tingkat refleksivitas demikian mendasar seperti abad ini, refleksivitas yang akhirnya berani dan mampu menggugat identitas diri “sains” itu sendiri. Masalah terbesar yang dihadapi sains di akhir abad 20 ini adalah “ sains itu sesungguhnya apa “. Sertamerta urusannya bukan lagi rumus atau teori ilmiah apa yang revolusioner dan baru. Bukan semata-mata perkara aksioma , metodologi, atau pun epistemologi, melainkan lebih mendasar : persoalan ontologi : sains itu apa, bagaimana sesungguhnya cara ia bekerja dan ber-evolusi, dimana posisi dan perannya bagi peradaban,dst. Hal-hal itu pulalah yang menjelaskan popularitas dan signifikansi nama-nama para filsuf macam Popper,Kuhn,Lakatos , Feyerabend , Gadamer atau pun Rorty.
Istilah “paradigma” muncul dalam suasana reflektif di dunia sains macam itu. Maka bila istilah tersebut lantas menyebar dan digunakan di berbagai bidang lain, ada bagusnya kita tinjau dahulu maknanya di tempat asalnya. Dari sana barangkali kita temukan insight yang berguna untuk mendudukkan perkaranya secara lebih proporsional.
Yang bicara paling eksplisit tentang “paradigma” di akhir abad 20 ini agaknya adalah Thomas Kuhn, meskipun sebagai istilah, “paradeigma” sudah digunakan sejak jaman Plato, yang artinya “model/contoh”.[1] Kendatipun pada Kuhn kerap kita temukan banyak nuansa tentang arti “paradigma” itu , dapatlah dikatakan bahwa yang dimaksud dengan “paradigma” kurang lebih adalah : segala hasil penelitian terdahulu yang diakui dan digunakan oleh komunitas ilmiah tertentu sebagai patokan dasar dan sumber penelitian selanjutnya. Hasil-hasil penelitian yang dijadikan patokan umum itu biasanya tampil dalam bentuk buku teks baku, baik pada tingkat dasar maupun lanjutan. Isi konkritnya biasanya adalah : hukum-hukum, bangunan teoritik yang sudah diterima, berbagai contoh penerapannya yang berhasil , berbagai observasi dan eksperimen yang dianggap standard, sistem instrumentasi yang diperlukan, beserta cara kerja praktisnya di lapangan. Mengambil contoh dari khasanah klasik, misalnya Physica karya Aristoteles, Almagest dari Ptolemeus, atau Principia dan Opticks dari Newton, telah berperan sebagai semacam “paradigma” itu. Dua karakteristik yang biasanya dimiliki oleh paradigma adalah : 1. menawarkan unsur baru tertentu yang menarik pengikut keluar dari persaingan metode kerja dalam kegiatan ilmiah sebelumnya; 2. (serentak) menawarkan pula persoalan-persoalan baru yang masih terbuka dan belum terselesaikan.[2]
“Paradigma” macam itu pulalah yang lantas akhirnya disebut sebagai tradisi penelitian ilmiah tertentu. Misalnya lalu ada sebutan “ Astronomi Ptolemaic “ , “Astronomi Copernican”, “Dinamika Aristotelian”, “Dinamika Newtonian”,dsb.dsb. Mahasiswa yang memasuki komunitas ilmiah tertentu lalu dididik dengan berbagai paradigma tersebut, dan karenanya -disadari atau pun tidak- masuk dalam pola-pola konsensus dasar komunitas itu. Suasana orientasi text-book ini pada gilirannya mudah menyebabkan si mahasiswa dan para praktisi dalam komunitas tersebut cenderung tidak memperkarakan prinsip atau asumsi-asumsi dasar di balik praktik-praktiknya. Inilah yang disebut Kuhn situasi “normal science”, yaitu situasi ketika sebuah paradigma menjadi sedemikian dominan sehingga ia digunakan sebagai tolok ukur utama dan umum sampai seolah tak lagi perlu mempertanyakan ulang prinsip-prinsip pertamanya. Mahasiswa tinggal saja berkonsentrasi khusus pada berbagai fenomena yang paling pelik dan esoterik dengan cara kerja “puzzle-solving” saja : artinya, bahan-bahan pembentuk puzzlenya sudah dibuatkan oleh buku teks dalam tradisi, tak perlu mencari-cari bahan “puzzle” baru yang samasekali berbeda. Effek bagus dari situasi “normal” ini adalah bahwa kita lebih mudah mendeteksi unsur “kemajuan” disitu.
Tapi dalam situasi modern istilah “paradigma” memang bernuansa agak lain , bila dibandingkan dengan situasi ilmiah pra-modern. Sekurang-kurangnya hingga abad tujuhbelas belum berlaku tolok ukur tunggal atau dominasi paradigma tunggal dalam penentuan ilmiah atau tidaknya suatu hasil penelitian. Jadi misalnya di bidang Fisika, dalam perkara cahaya berkembang berbagai aliran yang saling berkompetisi. Ada yang berkiblat pada Epicurus, ada yang Aristotelian , ada yang Platonik, beserta segala variasinya. Bagi yang satu cahaya diyakini sebagai partikel-partikel yang memancar dari tubuh-tubuh material; bagi yang lain cahaya adalah modifikasi medium antara tubuh dan mata; bagi yang lain lagi cahaya adalah interaksi antara medium dengan pancaran dari mata, dst.dst. Masing-masing mereka mengacu pada metafisika tertentu sebagai sumbernya, dan masing-masing memberi tekanan pada fenomena-fenomena optik khusus yang lebih bisa dijelaskan oleh teori masing-masing itu. Yang menarik adalah bahwa waktu itu mereka semua toh dianggap sebagai ilmuwan. Sebab memang tak ada satu standard umum yang disepakati bersama. Yang menarik lagi adalah bahwa dalam situasi macam itu wacana yang berkembang lebih bersifat horisontal, artinya : lebih terarah pada kubu-kubu satu sama lain yang bersaingan, ketimbang vertikal yaitu terarah pada fenomena alam itu sendiri.
Pada abad tujuhbelas dan delapan belas situasinya berbeda. Pada masa Newton itu mulai muncul semacam keyakinan bersama tentang paham yang dapat dianggap standard. Opticks karya Newton mengajarkan misalnya bahwa cahaya terdiri dari korpuskel-korpuskel material . Maka pandangan itu dijadikan patokan, sehingga kesibukan para fisikawan kemudian adalah mencari bukti-bukti tekanan partikel-partikel cahaya yang mendesak tubuh-tubuh padat. Tapi pada abad sembilanbelas pandangan standard macam itu tertantang oleh tulisan Young dan Fresnel yang menyarankan gagasan bahwa sebenarnya lebih tepatlah cahaya dilihat sebagai gerakan gelombang. Sedang pada abad duapuluh orang umumnya meyakini gagasan lain lagi, yaitu bahwa cahaya adalah photon-photon, alias maujud-maujud mekanika kuantum yang dapat tampil baik sebagai gelombang maupun sebagai partikel. Ini tentu saja gagasan yang diinspirasikan oleh Planck,Einstein,dll.
Yang hendak dikatakan adalah bahwa “keilmiahan” pada situasi pra-modern terasa jauh lebih pluralistik dan istilah “paradigma” tidak sertamerta berarti standard universal. Sedangkan dalam situasi modern, sesuai dengan tuntutan obyektivitas yang meyakini bahwa kebenaran itu tunggal, “paradigma” menjadi ungkapan kesepakatan umum dan karenanya berperan sebagai tolok ukur tunggal universal. Dalam situasi modern karenanya lebih dimungkinkan pula melihat sejarah ilmu secara linier, yaitu sejarah sebagai suksesi dari paradigma dominan ke paradigma lainnya, yang biasanya memang bersifat revolusioner. Dalam kerangka ini pula Kuhn bicara tentang “ revolusi ilmiah”.[3]
Memang akhir-akhir ini sains pun terpaksa agak berubah dalam memahami realitas alam semesta maupun dirinya sendiri. Dalam kerangka klasik Newtonian alam dilihat sebagai benda yang pasif dengan hukumnya yang berjalan bagai otomat sedang sains sendiri dimengerti sebagai observasi ketat dan netral atas data , lantas berurusan dengan kerangka kausalitas yang deterministik. Alam semesta ini dilihat sebagai suatu mekanisme yang sederhana, dikelola oleh hukum-hukum dasar yang abadi, tak kenal waktu, reversible, a temporal. Segala hal dalam alam ini unsur dasarnya satu dan sama, analog dengan segala bentuk bangunan (rumah, mesjid, pabrik,dsb) yang unsur dasarnya hanyalah batu-bata. Itu sebabnya mekanika klasik ini banyak berfokus pada wilayah mikro. Dampak dari pola berpikir macam ini antara lain adalah munculnya dualisme antara worldview ilmiah dan worldview religius, antara realitas yang diyakini sebagai mesin dengan hukum universalnya yang seragam-mekanis dan realitas yang diyakini sebagai proses kreatif, hidup,berkebebasan dan digerakkan kasih Tuhan. Joseph Needham menganggap dualisme macam ini sebagai akar dari skizofrenia Barat.[4]
Tapi semua itu kini telah berubah. Eddington menemukan bahwa penelitian pada tingkat mikro, yaitu pada partikel-partikel elementer sebenarnya tak mampu menjelaskan perilaku pada tingkat makro, yaitu pada konfigurasi total kumpulan molekul- molekul. Sejak munculnya Mekanika Kuantum dan teori Relativitas diyakini bahwa partikel-partikel sebenarnya selalu berada dalam proses transformasi terus menerus kedalam satu sama lain. Dari sana ditemukan bahwa ternyata semesta ini kompleks dan tidak sederhana, pluralistik dan tidak seragam, unik temporal-irreversible dan tidak deterministik-a temporal. Struktur-struktur bisa bermunculan lalu hilang kembali. Realitas ternyata dikendalikan oleh proses yang bersifat fluktuatif Memang ada saatnya ia bisa dipahami secara deterministik, namun kali lain sering lebih bisa dipahami sebagai proses yang bersifat probabilistik. Persisnya, pola determinisme hanya relevan bagi situasi equilibrium, yang sebetulnya langka. Alam semesta pada dasarnya mengandung unsur-unsur yang pada dasarnya acak, unik dan spontan. Materi bukanlah substansi pasif, melainkan aktivitas spontan dan kreatif, soal relasi dan komunikasi, di dalam waktu. Teori tentang Dissipative Structure dari Ilya Prigogine kini meng-eksplisitkan semua itu. Baginya alam semesta ternyata tak selalu berada dalam situasi equilibrium. Bila situasi berubah dari equilibrium ke far-from equilibrium maka pola repetitif-universal-mekanis berubah ke pola spesifik,spontan dan tak terduga. Lantas dimungkinkanlah transformasi dari khaos ke order, terbentuklah tatanan baru , yang oleh Prigogine disebut dissipative structure itu. Jadi pada situasi macam itu semesta ternyata bekerja dalam proses yang bersifat non-linier dan kreatif. Seolah bila dalam keadaan equilibrium materi itu “buta”, dalam keadaan far-from-equilibrium materi jadi bisa “melihat” (melihat masalah dalam medan elektrik atau gravitasional, misalnya) dan cepat mengambil sikap kreatif baru . Perubahan-perubahan kecil pada tingkat elementer mikroskopis dalam konteks ini dapat menggelombang menjadi perubahan besar pola perilaku pada tingkat makroskopis.[5] Baik dari bidang partikel-elementer, kimia, biologi maupun kosmologi kini ditemukan bahwa alam ternyata memiliki unsur-unsur self-organization, kompleksitas dan temporalitas (proses evolusioner).
Perubahan-perubahan itu semua telah membawa perubahan pula bagi pemahaman diri sains itu sendiri. Bahwa ternyata dimungkinkan perubahan pandangan yang demikian radikal dalam dunia sains menunjukkan bahwa ada interaksi sistematik antara konsep-konsep teoritik dan observasi ; bahwa respons alam terhadap interogasi eksperimental sains sebetulnya sangat ditentukan oleh kerangka teoritis yang digunakan sains itu. Dengan kata lain, kini disadari bahwa konstruksi intelektual manusia sendiri ternyata sangat menentukan paham yang didapat tentang “apa”nya realitas. Apa pun yang kita sebut “realitas” sebetulnya dibukakan pada kita hanya melalui konstruksi aktif pikiran kita sendiri . Tagore, pernah berkata bahwa “bahkan kalau pun kebenaran absolut itu ada, kebenaran itu tak akan pernah terjangkau oleh pikiran manusia”. Ternyata omongan ini bukanlah sekedar kegilaan mistik Ternyata segala bentuk pengukuran, eksperimen dan observasi hanya dimungkinkan karena kita sudah punya kerangka teoritis terlebih dahulu.[6] Dari sana dunia ilmiah pun kini menyadari bahwa ternyata yang sebenarnya menjadi persoalan pokok adalah soal “makna”, bukan sekedar perkara “fakta” seperti keyakinan naif dunia ilmiah klasik. Ketika Bohr mengunjungi kastil Kronberg, dia berkata kepada Werner Heisenberg bahwa kastil yang sebetulnya biasa saja seperti kastil lainnya itu tiba-tiba berubah ketika disadari bahwa Hamlet pernah tinggal disitu. Inilah persis persoalan “makna” itu.
Meskipun demikian, masalahnya tetaplah dalam dunia sains itu terdapat keyakinan bahwa ada paradigma umum. Isi paradigmanya memang bisa berubah, taruhlah dalam sains klasik titik berat diletakkan pada perkara “substansi” dan “reversibility” sedangkan sekarang titik berat pada persoalan “relasi” dan “irriversibility”. Bahkan kalau pun tekanan itu diletakkan pada pluralitas dan partikularitas kenyataan, paradigma tentang pluralitas dan partikularitas itu tetaplah diyakini sebagai universal juga.
Sejarah dan paradigma kesenian
Ketunggalan , keuniversalan dan konsepsi yang linear tentang sejarah , pada hemat saya adalah hal-hal pokok yang kelak akan sangat menentukan pula manakala kita bicara tentang senirupa . Pertama-tama harus segera dikatakan bahwa dominasi sains dalam peradaban modern memang sangat menggoda segala bidang lain untuk mengikuti pola-pola kerja sains itu. Keobyektifan dan sifat universal sains beserta mitos “kemajuan” yang dikembangkannya membuat orang tak lagi cukup waspada terhadap kekhasan dasar bidang-bidang lainnya. Bahkan karenanya konsep tentang “sejarah” yang demikian linear itu sendiri pun sepertinya tak pernah diperkarakan.
Demikian, di bidang seni pun lantas sejarah perkembangan seni di Barat, misalnya, selalu saja cenderung dilihat sebagai rangkaian babakan yang ditandai patahan-patahan revolusioner ( ruptures ) yang biasanya dikaitkan dengan peritiwa-peristiwa sosial-politik yang menentukan seperti : abad pertengahan, renesansi, barok, romantik, modern, kontemporer , dsb.; atau dikaitkan dengan perubahan-perubahan mendasar di bidang “gaya” (style,schools ) seperti : naturalisme, impressionisme, ekspressionisme, abstrak-ekspressionisme, dst.dst.. Dan pola memahami sejarah macam itu sertamerta juga menjadi pola baku yang digunakan di berbagai tempat. “Gaya” (aliran atau style) dan kondisi sosial-politik dilihat sebagai dua kunci untuk memahami “paradigma” kesenian.
Mengenai normativitas “gaya” memang betul bahwa di dunia Barat pun terdapat sikap yang ambivalen. Sempat “gaya” atau style dipandang sebagai akal-akalan yang tidak tulus, mengganggu materi dasar yang seharusnya justru tampil. Dan orang lantas berusaha untuk “transparan” atau “style-less” alias tanpa gaya. Dalam hal novel, misalnya, Barthes sempat menyebut istilah “the zero degree of writing” atau “anti metaphorical and dehumanized”. Whitman pernah mengatakan bahwa penyair besar biasanya justru tak mempunyai style yang jelas, sebab ia adalah aliran bebas dari dalam dirinya sendiri. Dan Camus sempat menganggap tulisan-tulisannya berstyle “putih” (white style) sebab ia bersifat impersonal, ekspositoris, lugas dan datar, nyaris “tanpa gaya”.
Tapi sikap macam itu muncul terutama karena style cenderung dimengerti ibarat sebuah tirai, dekorasi belaka, atau cadar yang menutupi kandungan yang lebih dalam. Artinya di balik semua itu ada asumsi dasar bahwa sebuah karya itu terdiri dari kemasan dan isi, bentuk dan essensi. Tapi asumsi dasar bisa lain. Cocteau, misalnya, meyakini bahwa style adalah ibarat roh yang hanya bisa tampil lewat tubuh, atau Susan Sontag yang meyakini bahwa “ art is not only about something, it is something” , artinya : dalam karya seni “isi” itu selalu tampil dalam totalitas fisiognomisnya atau dalam konfigurasi bentuknya yang inderawi. Bentuk dan isi itu tak terpisahkan. Dan apresiasi seni selalulah merupakan proses transformasi yang pada hakekatnya terjadi lewat struktur formal karya. Karya seni dalam stylenya yang khas selalulah merupakan inkarnasi dari roh, jejak yang tampak jelas dari energi atau pun vitalitas. Dari perspektif macam Sontag ini lalu bobot dan kualitas sebuah karya seni memang erat lekat pada style- nya. Hanya saja bagi Sontag “roh” itu sebetulnya selalu sesuatu yang bersifat individual dan karenanya style-pun merupakan idiom yang sifatnya partikular. Bila dipukulrata kedalam kategori aliran-aliran besar individualitas khas karya sebetulnya hilang. Ibarat pola perilaku yang khas seseorang hilang ketika dikategorikan dalam klasifikasi psikologi atau sosiologi, dan sosok konkrit manusianya hilang. Padahal salah satu hal yang unik dalam seni adalah justru kemampuannya menampilkan realitas yang singular ke tingkat eksplisit; membuat kita melihat dan memahami yang partikular dan real.[7]
Pada orang macam Sontag memang style menjadi primer dan normatif, namun tekanannya pada partikularitas menyebabkannya lebih realistis. Yang menjadi masalah adalah bahwa dalam alur sejarah seni Barat style itu menjadi kategori-kategori umum, sedemikian hingga ia menjadi kriteria pembabakan sejarah juga. Ini terutama marak ketika Hegel bicara tentang “Roh Obyektif”, yang kemudian melahirkan anggapan tentang adanya “Roh jaman” alias semacam kesadaran kolektif. Pada titik ini style lebih kuat lagi diyakini sebagai “Roh Jaman” itu. Bahkan lebih jauh, pengertian tentang “seni” pun jadinya erat terkait pada pemahaman tentang perkembangan style versi Barat . Lalu, seperti sains, seolah definisi “seni” pun mesti universal, dan itu berarti definisi seni ala Barat pula yang menjadi patokan.
Kecenderungan diatas itu membawa dampak yang sesungguhnya problematis. Misalnya saja, segala bentuk kesenian tradisional di berbagai negara lain yang non-barat, betapa pun canggihnya , statusnya tak akan lebih daripada “kerajinan” . Menarik bukan pertama-tama sebagai benda seni –seolah “kerajinan” bukanlah seni samasekali- melainkan sebagai data Antropologis yang eksotik saja, bukti-bukti keprimitifan alias keterbelakangan. Sementara di sisi lain segala bentuk “modern” kebarat-baratan yang berkembang di negara-negara non-barat itu cenderung dilihat sebagai seni yang “tidak otentik” . Kecenderungan ambivalen ini mau tak mau senantiasa berdampak mendudukan Barat selalu dalam posisi superior, dan di luar barat menjadi selalu inferior. Betapa pun kuatnya -dalam skala formalisme- bentuk “abstrak-ekspressionistik” patung-patung Asmat atau pun Nias, patung-patung tersebut hanya akan dianggap sebagai ungkapan ketidaktepatan persepsi fisiognomis orang primitif, ibarat lukisan anak-anak yang belum mampu menangkap rincian bentuk normal-natural.[8]
Kajian Sejarah dalam dunia seni sesungguhnya bisa mengincar obyek yang amat berragam dan sifat kajiannya pun bisa berragam. Pada tingkat yang paling sederhana sejarah bisa hanya berupa cerita yang sifatnya deskriptif saja, misalnya tentang bagaimana dari jaman ke jaman manusia menciptakan dan mengolah imaji. Memang dari cerita macam itu orang juga bisa membuat sejarah yang lebih bersifat evaluatif, tak sekedar deskriptif, misalnya : dari berbagai fenomen olah imaji itu lantas mana yang dianggap paling “bermutu” dan layak disebut sebagai “Seni” ( dengan huruf besar). Sejarah juga bisa sekedar cerita perkembangan teknis seperti teknik melukis, alat-alat dan teknik musik, teknik arsitektur,dsb. Bisa juga ia hanya bercerita tentang perubahan selera atau fungsi seni, dsb..
Tapi akhirnya yang akan sangat penting adalah konsep “sejarah” itu sendiri dimengerti sebagai apa. Bila sejarah hanya dimaksudkan sebagai salah satu kegiatan pendataan saja maka kecenderungannya akan lebih bersifat deskriptif saja. Namun bila dalam pengertian “sejarah” terkandung pretensi untuk melihat sejenis “evolusi peradaban”, macam yang dipikirkan Hegel misalnya, mau tak mau muncul kecenderungan kuat ke arah sifat evaluatif bahkan normatif. Dan yang terakhir ini memang merupakan godaan kuat dalam alam berpikir modern : orang tak cukup bersahaja untuk mau melihat realitas sebagai sekedar “perubahan” dan selalu ingin melihatnya dalam perspektif “vertikal” alias dalam kerangka “kemajuan”. Untunglah ada orang-orang macam Foucault atau pun Deleuze yang mencoba melihat realitas historis itu lebih secara “horisontal”, yakni sekedar melihat jaringan berbagai saling-keterkaitan yang mungkin antar berbagai unsur/peristiwa lantas menemukan insight-insight baru (apa pun itu) dari dalamnya. Kaum post-strukturalis ini, betapa pun ganjilnya cara berpikir mereka, menjadi penting untuk mengingatkan kita bahwa “sejarah” adalah lahan interaksi berbagai peristiwa yang demikian luas kemungkinannya untuk dimaknai. Dan “makna” itu bisa apa pun juga. Ini memang perspektif yang tak lagi bersandar pada metafisika “substansi” atawa “essensialisme” modern yang selalu berkeyakinan bahwa segala sesuatu itu ada essensinya, dan essensi itu satu. Dalam kerangka metafisika macam itu memang ada gelagat kuat untuk menjadikan peradaban tertentu sebagai tolok ukur tunggal , yang sesungguhnya merupakan pemiskinan dan pengkerdilan realitas.
Komunitas ilmuwan dan komunitas seniman
Bahwa sejarah ilmu yang cenderung dilihat secara evolusioner tidak selalu sesuai untuk ditransfer polanya ke dalam sejarah seni, sebetulnya juga berkaitan erat dengan kenyataan bahwa jenis komunitas dan kegiatan ilmiah sesungguhnya memiliki karakter yang berlainan dengan jenis kegiatan dan komunitas seni.
Bagaimana pun juga komunitas ilmuwan bersifat lebih eksklusif daripada komunitas seniman. Ilmuwan bekerja dalam sorotan para anggota kelompok sejawat , yaitu orang-orang yang memiliki keyakinan dan nilai-nilai serupa. Karena itu pula mereka ini lebih mudah menggunakan satu standard penilaian yang sama. Sementara para seniman lebih tergantung pada penilaian khalayak awam yang bersifat heterodoks. Itu karena para seniman selalu membutuhkan agar karyanya ditampilkan dan dinikmati orang banyak. Dan ini mengakibatkan tidak mudahnya menerapkan standard tunggal untuk menilai karya-karya seni.
Ilmuwan , khususnya yang dari bidang-bidang eksakta tidak perlu memilih persoalan yang hendak ditelitinya sebab sistem, metode dan konteks yang mereka gumuli itu sendirilah yang akan menurunkan berbagai persoalan yang harus ditelaah lebih lanjut. Sementara para seniman ( dan ilmuwan sosial atau pun filsuf) biasanya harus mencari dan memilih sendiri serta mempertanggungjawabkan sendiri pula persoalan-persoalan yang hendak digarapnya. Dan, terutama dalam kegiatan seni kontemporer yang konseptualistis, ini sering sangat berkaitan dengan masalah-masalah dalam kehidupan konkrit aktual.
Para ilmuwan, khususnya di bidang ilmu-ilmu alam , umumnya dididik dengan ketergantungan serius pada buku teks (yang memang up-to-date), meskipun pada tahun-tahun akhir mereka dimungkinkan mengadakan riset sendiri juga. Dan kegiatan problem-solving mereka pun lebih berupa puzzle-solving. Semua itu lantas mengakibatkan situasi dalam ilmu-ilmu ini sesungguhnya tidak terlalu kondusif untuk munculnya temuan-temuan atau pendekatan-pendekatan baru. Bahkan bukan tak mungkin para mahasiswa fisika misalnya merasa tak perlu membaca langsung karya-karya Newton,Faraday, Einstein atau pun Schrodinger, oleh sebab segala yang perlu mereka ketahui toh sudah diringkaskan secara lebih effisien dan sistematik dalam berbagai buku teks.
Dari sudut ini ilmuwan terasa berkecenderungan “tradisional”, dalam arti : segala pola pikir sebelumnya dilihat sebagai terarah secara lurus dan akumulatif kepada saat ini. “Kemajuan” pun cenderung dilihat dalam kerangka linear macam itu. Karena itu komunitas para ilmuwan cenderung merasa aman dan mapan. Mereka tidak mudah untuk mengambil paradigma yang samasekali baru, sebab hal itu akan mengakibatkan banyak hal yang telah lama dianggap sebagai pondasi akan diperkarakan, dan terbongkar. Dengan kata lain, sebetulnya di bidang ilmiah “kebaruan” bukanlah sesuatu yang secara psikologis sungguh dikehendaki. Yang namanya “kebaruan” biasanya bisa ditolerir hanya bila tetap memungkinkan kerangka problem-solving terdahulu digunakan, dan bila paradigma baru itu betul-betul mampu memecahkan persoalan penting dan menonjol, yang dengan cara lain memang tak bisa dipecahkan. Tidaklah mengherankan bila Kuhn lantas mengatakan bahwa meskipun sains memang bisa makin mendalam toh ia sulit untuk semakin melebar dan meluas daya jangkaunya. Dan dalam kerangka ini semua, Kuhn bahkan mengatakan bahwa perubahan paradigma dalam dunia sains sesungguhnya tidak selalu berarti semakin dekatnya kita pada kebenaran.[9]
Dalam dunia seni ( juga ilmu sosial dan filsafat) buku-teks tak pernah menduduki posisi sedemikian sentral hingga menimbulkan ketergantungan. Dalam dunia seni yang lebih menentukan perkembangan adalah ter-eksposnya seniman atau calon seniman itu pada karya-karya seniman lain yang notabene berragam sekali coraknya. Maka dunia seni lebih terbiasa melihat berragam persoalan dengan berragam solusi yang ditawarkan . Dalam dunia yang dipenuhi atmosfer kreatif ini sesungguhnya menjadi tidak wajar memandang masa lalu sebagai alur lurus sederhana ke arah masa kini seperti dalam dunia sains. Seni adalah realitas yang alur sejarahnya sudah selalu centang perenang ke segala arah dan berbagai alternatif. Ini persis dunia filsafat yang meskipun sepertinya problem dasarnya sama , yaitu “realitas ini apa?” toh penjabaran persoalan dan bentuk jawabannya betul-betul memperlihatkan demikian banyak kemungkinan. Dan dalam konteks ini “kebaruan” seolah justru merupakan hal penting yang dicari orang. Suasana Avantgarde di masa lampau adalah contoh ekstrim betapa akhirnya kebaruan dicari sering demi “kebaruan” itu sendiri saja ( asal baru), dan tak selalu demi peningkatan teknis maupun isi substansi. Bila dalam dunia sains, segala bentuk kebaruan akan dikaji berdasarkan kerangka “tradisional”, maka dalam dunia seni bisa persis sebaliknya : segala bentuk alur tradisional akan dinilai ulang berdasarkan kebaruan-kebaruan atau berdasarkan semangat kreatif baru.
Dari sudut ini , meskipun seniman-seniman bisa saja berkelompok dalam sebuah komunitas aliran/gaya/tradisi tertentu, toh sesungguhnya seniman itu pada kodratnya adalah petualang-petualang yang soliter. Dan pada titik ini sesungguhnya selalu terasa kurang pas bila kita bicara tentang sebuah “paradigma” dalam artian tolok ukur komunal atau pun umum. Lebih tepat agaknya bila kita melihat para seniman itu sendirilah masing-masing yang merupakan “paradigma”, yaitu sebagai individu dengan kreativitas dan rangkaian perjalannya yang khas.
Soalnya bagaimana sebuah paradigma diadopsi dalam komunitas ilmuwan dan dalam komunitas seniman itu juga nuansanya bisa sangat berbeda. Bagaimana pun juga dalam konteks dunia ilmu modern, yang meyakini tolok ukur tunggal sebagai cerminan obyektivitas universal, mengadopsi sebuah paradigma baru berkaitan erat dengan tersingkapnya sisi lain dari realitas. Dus, “vertikal”, seolah karena realitasnya ternyata berbeda maka kacamatanya diganti. Itu keyakinan dasarnya. De facto, diterima atau tidaknya paradigma baru itu memang sering lebih di pengaruhi faktor psikologis, praktis maupun sosiologis, ketimbang faktor ontologis sungguhan, seperti telah diuraikan diatas.
Dalam dunia seni , kalaupun dominasi suatu kecenderungan pola pandang ,tema atau pun gaya bisa dianggap sebagai dominasi sebuah paradigma ( ini masih selalu bisa dipersoalkan ) , maka ternyata ada banyak sekali kemungkinan variabel yang bisa mempengaruhi diterima atau tidaknya paradigma itu. Dan umumnya itu lebih persoalan “horisontal” saja, bahkan banyak kali juga unsur-unsur kebetulan dan irrasional ikut berperan.
Kesenian meledak dalam jaman Renesanse konon salah satu penyebabnya sederhana saja, yaitu kebiasaan para imam Fransiskan dan Dominikan abad tigabelas dan empatbelas yang bila berkotbah menggunakan teknik meditasi pembayangan. Misalnya : “Bayangkanlah Maria sedang duduk, mendengar suara dari malaikat….dst.dst”. Teknik pembayangan atau visualisasi macam inilah konon yang antara lain di kemudian hari berkembang menjadi drama-drama dan lukisan.[10] Unsur kebetulan berperan disini.
Akibat Protestantisme yang bersifat ikonoklastik alias tak menyukai berbagai bentuk simbol dan imaji dalam gereja, misalnya, di Inggris kesenian sempat tak berkembang bahkan nyaris mati. Saat itu seniman dianggap profesi yang tak punya masa depan. Tapi di negeri Belanda , yang juga saat itu dikuasai Protestantisme, tradisi seni tetap maju , sebab kendati tidak mereka pakai sendiri karya-karya mereka itu diekspor untuk kolektor luar negeri. Unsur bisnis sangat berperan disini.
Teknik-teknik atau pun peralatan baru bisa juga ikut menentukan, sebab membuka kemungkinan baru yang lebih luas. Ketika muncul orgel pipa, maka penciptaan gubahan-gubahan musikal yang lebih rumit, macam “fuga”, jadi dimungkinkan daripada sewaktu musik hanya bisa dimainkan sebuah suling sederhana. Meskipun tetap perlu diingat bahwa orgel pipa dan komposisi-komposisi macam fuga dimungkinkan karena dirintis oleh tradisi suling juga. Memang terobosan-terobosan baru bisa muncul karena intensitas pergumulan dengan tradisi juga. Dalam dunia senirupa munculnya alat forografi tentunya juga ikut merangsang orang berubah pikiran tentang apa artinya melukis, sehingga gaya naturalistik berubah ke arah impressionistik. Memang perubahan ini juga dimungkinkan karena tradisi naturalistik telah mencapai puncak kesetiaannya pada prinsip mimesis hingga jenuh.
Unsur kejutan baru pun bisa ikut berperan sebagai pembuka kemungkinan-kemungkinan baru. Bila biasanya patung-patung tidak diberi warna dan tiba-tiba seorang seniman terkemuka mewarnai patung-patungnya, misalnya, bisa saja ini kemudian diterima sebagai jalan keluar dari kejenuhan juga, yang lantas membuka gaya baru.
Sebuah style bisa menjadi dominan juga karena kebetulan ia persis memenuhi kebutuhan akan selera baru. Ini soal selera pasar. Style Gotik yang diawali oleh abbot Suger dari st.Denis segera ditiru banyak orang antara lain konon karena hal itu memenuhi hasrat orang jaman itu akan kaca-kaca besar dan bentuk-bentuk lentur melingkar,sebab bosan pada garis-garis kaku,berat dan anggular. Barangkali perkaranya mirip Walkman. Awalnya orang tak berpikir kesitu dan tak menginginkannya, namun ketika nekad diproduksi oleh Jepang orang seperti dibantu merumuskan kebutuhannya : kebutuhan akan kenikmatan menikmati musik yang bersifat pribadi, intim dan mobile dalam masyarakat yang semakin individualistik. Maka muncullah wabah walkman. Berkaitan dengan selera pasar ini, sulit dipungkiri, bahwa sering seniman pun sangat dipengaruhi olehnya. Misalnya ketika style impressionisme dominan, maka gaya itu pulalah yang terasa bergengsi, sehingga melukis dengan gaya naturalistik menjadi terasa inferior.
Masyarakat Barat ketika menjadi modern sangat menekankan prestasi individual, dan karenanya situasi menjadi cenderung kompetitif. Sejak Giotto menandatangani karyanya orang pun tersadar akan tuntutan prestasi individual itu dalam kesenian juga. Antara lain sejak itulah mulai berkembang konsep tentang seniman sebagai “great master”, bahkan kelak nyaris bagaikan “nabi”. Padahal sebelum-sebelumnya seniman tak lebih bagai pengrajin alias tukang biasa saja. Situasi kompetitif ini pula yang dalam skala jauhnya telah ikut melahirkan sejarah suksesi aliran/gaya dalam dunia seni di Barat. Itu unsur khas Barat, yang di India atau pun Cina dan Indonesia, misalnya, tidaklah terasa oleh sebab suasana umum sosialnya masih berpola komunal dan kesenian pun belum sungguh-sungguh merupakan bidang yang sangat otonom dan karenanya tak menghasilkan sejarah matarantai paradigma seperti dalam dunia seni Barat juga. Jadi unsur pola dan disposisi mental-kultural masyarakat pun sangatlah berperan.
Style pun bisa tiba-tiba menjadi dominan bila ia mampu merumuskan mood atau pun atmosfer lingkungan yang konkrit dialami namun sering sulit dirumuskan. Misalnya saja, gaya assemblage , collage, atau pun juxtaposition sewenang-wenang yang akhir-akhir ini sepertinya selalu saja kita jumpai dalam berbagai karya seni, sangat mungkin menjadi dominan karena ia persis menampilkan aspek komposit dari kenyataan dunia manusia kontemporer, yang memang serba campuran,serba hibrida hampir dalam segala sisi kehidupannya.
Semua ilustrasi diatas memperlihatkan bahwa dalam dunia seni posisi paradigma sesungguhnya tidaklah sama dengan paradigma dalam dunia sains. Dalam dunia seni unsur-unsur kontekstual-lokal dan unsur irrasional demikian besar pengaruhnya, sehingga mestinya konsep tentang sejarah seni pun tak bisa persis bersifat se-evaluatif dan se-normatif sejarah sains. Penulisan sejarah seni dengan demikian akan lebih berguna bila ditulis secara lebih modest, lebih deskriptif, melukiskan berbagai bentuk “perubahan” dengan segala kemungkinan penyebab dan akibatnya, tanpa pretensi melihatnya sebagai “kemajuan” dan tanpa buru-buru menerapkan kotak-kotak kategorisasi yang sudah dirancang sebelumnya, apalagi sambil menganggap paradigma-paradigma tertentu sebagai tolok ukur-tolok ukur umum.
“Seni” sebagai istilah yang licin
Semua perasaan ketidakcocokan yang mengganjal manakala kita membandingkan antara seni dan sains diatas tadi boleh jadi sesungguhnya berakar pada ambiguitas makna kata “seni” itu sendiri. Istilah “seni” itu memang mengandung pengertian yang sangat licin. Di satu sisi pengertiannya mau dipasti-pastikan seperti yang senantiasa terjadi dalam kultur Barat yang memang sangat verbal dan diskursif itu. Di sisi lain upaya-upaya macam itu pun ujung-ujungnya seperti mengalami frustrasi sendiri. Arthur Danto menyebut situasi saat ini “The end of Art”.[11] Sedang Gombrich menuliskan kalimat pertama dalam The Story of Art begini : “ There really is no such thing as art. There are only artists.”[12] Pernyataan-pernyataan macam itu hari-hari ini bertebaran dimana-mana dan menunjukkan betapa sia-sianya segala upaya untuk menetap-netapkan hakekat “seni” itu.
Sepanjang sejarahnya, bila ditinjau secara umum dan luas, maka pengertian “seni” de facto telah berubah terusmenerus . Dalam masyarakat –masyarakat pra-modern ada kecenderungan kuat bahwa seni itu merupakan bagian erat dari religi dan statusnya hanyalah sebagai keterampilan teknis saja. Dalam konteks Barat istilah Ars aslinya juga berarti : skill, craftmanship, atau keterampilan teknis. Sekurang-kurangnya hingga Renesansi pengertian macam itu di Barat masih berlaku, hingga waktu itu antara teknik, pertukangan bahkan sains dengan seni tak jelas bedanya. Pada figur macam Leonardo da Vinci tumpang tindih pengertian itu jelas sekali terasa : ia itu seniman, sekaligus ilmuwan dan tukang.
Ketika seni masih erat terkait pada religi keterampilan teknis itu pun berkaitan erat dengan ritual religius. Disini seni adalah pola-pola ungkap pengalaman religius. Katakanlah , ia berfungsi menggarisbawahi kemisteriusan realitas sakral-transenden. Dalam kerangka ini tidak mengherankan bila bentuk seni itu umumnya bercorak dekoratif, ornamental dan stilistik. Stilisasi disini bukanlah sekedar “penggayaan” bukan pula ungkapan ketidakmampuan perseptual. Kecenderungan mendistorsi bentuk-bentuk normal-natural itu agaknya lebih tepat dilihat sebagai strategi untuk menampilkan interioritas, aura sakral atau pun ruh di balik tampilan-tampilan fisik material. Yang menarik pada periode ini adalah juga bahwa seni disini bersifat sangat populis : urusan bersama dan bagian hidup sehari-hari. Seniman bukanlah sosok istimewa sekali dengan status sosial khusus, melainkan bagian dari masyarakat dan hidup sehari-hari yang biasa saja.
Perubahan pengertian tentang “seni” mulai terasa menonjol di kemudian hari terutama dalam dunia Barat modern. Dalam atmosfer modern itu seni seolah melepaskan diri dari institusi religius dan meraih otonominya sendiri. Sejak itu kegiatan kesenian cenderung menjadi medan eksplorasi bentuk,materi dan teknik. Memang ini berkaitan dengan berbagai gejala lain yang mencirikan kemodernan. Misalnya saja, yang utama adalah bahwa dalam pola pikir modern religiusitas memang cenderung tersingkir, sekurang-kurangnya tidak lagi menjadi poros utama kehidupan. Dan ketika kehidupan lebih dikelola berdasarkan perspektif sekular dan rasional, kesenian pun cenderung menjadi persoalan teknikalitas dan reflektivitas. Musik tak lagi peduli dengan keagungan,keindahan dan harmoni, melainkan menjadi perkara eksplorasi hakekat “musik” dan fenomen “bunyi’ itu sendiri. Tarian menjadi pencarian hakekat “gerak”. Senirupa menjadi refleksi tentang makna terdalam “imaji” dan “simbol” dalam skala seluas-luasnya. Sedang seni-seni pertunjukan sibuk bergulat dengan interaksi dialektis hakiki antara pementasan dan kehidupan nyata secara timbal-balik. Dengan itu semua kesenian lantas menjadi sangat elitis borjuis dan berwatak personal sangat kental. Seniman menjadi semacam genius-genius yang menempati status sosial elitis juga. Serentak karya-karya seni makin bersifat filosofis dan makin jauh dari persepsi dan apresiasi masyarakat kebanyakan. Sedemikian sehingga ketika ujung-ujungnya kesenian macam ini masuk kembali ke wilayah banalitas sehari-hari justru menjadi terasa aneh. Gelagat yang dipelopori Dadaisme, lalu Pop-art , musik konkrit, installasi, multimedia,dst.dst. malah diragukan justru oleh mereka yang dididik dalam kerangka estetika modern. Dan itu pula sebabnya kelompok-kelompok diatas itu sekaligus saja menyebut dirinya “anti-art” atau “post-estetik”,dsb.dsb. Sejak itu konsep tentang “seni” dan “apa itu seni” memang menjadi tema utama perbincangan hingga hari ini.
Sebenarnya dari dulu pengertian tentang apa itu “seni” sudah selalu problematis. Salah satu yang menarik misalnya masalah apakah Arsitektur itu termasuk sebagai seni atau bukan. Dalam kultur dan bahasa Jerman arsitektur termasuk dalam istilah Kunst , sementara dalam bahasa Inggris ia tidak termasuk dalam istilah Art. Atau dalam konteks kesenian modern, misalnya, kerajinan ( craft) tidak pernah dianggap sungguh-sungguh “seni” berhubung dalam paham modern ada anggapan bahwa yang betul-betul seni itu adalah yang termasuk dalam “high-art”, yang dalam bahasa Indonesia dahulu sering diasosiasikan dengan “seni murni” itu. Dan dalam kerangka ini karya-karya seni primitif , betapapun mengandung intensitas toh tak akan pernah disebut sebagai “seni” dalam arti sesungguhnya. Mereka akan tetap sekedar produk “kerajinan”. Di Cina kaligrafi adalah betul-betul “seni” yang intensitas dan status kulturalnya tinggi, padahal di Barat tidak.
Untuk sebagiannya tentang apa persis yang bisa disebut “seni” dan bukan seni seringkali sangat tergantung pada cara peradaban tertentu memahami dirinya. Apa yang kita hargai dan kagumi, serta bagaimana cara kita menangkap dan menghargai sesuatu sebagiannya agaknya ditentukan oleh peradaban yang menghidupi kita. Kalau tetangga kita mengatakan bahwa Picasso itu hebat, maka kita juga ingin beranggapan sama, sampai akhirnya kita memang melihat mengapa dia hebat. Dalam situasi dan kondisi tertentu orang seperti Bosch atau Dali boleh jadi tak lebih dari orang-orang yang kurang waras. Tapi bila dikondisikan sedemikian bahwa mereka itu sebetulnya “genius” -yang memang masuk akal juga- maka lama-kelamaan kita memang meyakini bahwa mereka itu genius. Setiap peradaban dan jaman biasanya memiliki kriteriumnya sendiri dalam hal ini. Doktrin yang menguasai dunia seni abad 18 misalnya, adalah bahwa seni haruslah menampilkan perasaan terdalam para tokohnya, agar para penonton tersentuh. Dan itulah yang ada dibalik adagium “art must be noble”. Pada abad 19 lain lagi prinsipnya, yang lebih penting adalah kejujuran dan perasaan si senimannya : “ art must be sincere” . Yang terakhir ini khususnya dipengaruhi Psikoanalisa yang meyakini bahwa seni itu mirip mimpi , dan itu soal “pengakuan pribadi”.
Tapi selain pengertian “seni” yang relatif itu , yang agaknya lebih perlu kita perhatikan adalah bedanya pola persepsi sains dengan seni itu sebagai fenomen-fenomen umum. Maka telaah fenomenologi-hermeneutis menjadi menarik disini. Secara singkat dapat dikatakan bahwa pola persepsi ilmiah berkecenderungan mengamati kenyataan dengan berjarak, jarak analitik. Sedemikian sehingga persepsi ilmiah selalu mengandaikan realitas sebagai sesuatu yang berada diluar kita, sebagai “obyek”. Dengan sendirinya manusia (peneliti/ilmuwan) lantas menganggap dirinya sebagai “subyek”. Persepsi ilmiah juga bekerja melalui proses abstraksi, dalam arti : ia selalu mencari unsur-unsur yang sifatnya umum saja dari realitas konkrit yang sesungguhnya partikular. Dan dengan cara kerja macam itu, maka pola logika yang digunakan pun bersifat linear, atau meminjam istilah Arthur Koestler, “assosiatif”, alias hanya melihat keterkaitan-keterkaitan diantara fenomen-fenomen yang satu kategori atau kategori-kategori yang berdekatan ( tihang listrik dengan kabel listrik, dengan lampu,dst.). Lebih jauh lagi , sains selalu berkecenderungan untuk mengukur dan mengkalkulasi. Keterukuran ( commensurability ) adalah salah satu karakter fundamental persepsi sains. Maka pola wacananya pun haruslah pola lugas-literal. Metafor ataupun analogi hanya digunakan bila itu menunjang kelogisan penjelasan harafiah saja.
Persepsi seni bagaimana pun sangatlah berbeda. Seni memang juga hendak bicara tentang realitas, namun justru dengan cara melebur menyatu dengan realitas itu. Dengan bahasa Gadamer, yang terjadi dalam persepsi seni adalah proses “bermain”, yaitu proses dimana Subyek dan Obyek tak ada lagi, yang ada dan menampilkan diri adalah “permainan” itu sendiri.[13] Dalam proses macam itu si seniman menguasai realitas justru dengan membiarkan diri dikuasai oleh realitas itu. Ia menangkap sesuatu justru dengan menenggelamkan diri dalam sesuatu itu, bukannya dengan mengambil jarak analitis lantas membedahnya. Maka yang menjadi penting bagi seorang seniman bukanlah proses abstraksi. Kebalikannya : proses merasuki kekonkritan dan keunikan realitas dalam segala keterkaitannya dengan realitas lainnya yang tak terduga. Maka pola logika yang digunakannya pun samasekali tidak linear, melainkan lateral, menyamping, bahkan ke segala arah dan kategori. Dengan istilah Arthur Koestler, logika yang berlaku disini adalah logika “Bissosiatif” : segala hal bisa berkitan dengan segala hal lain. Bagi seorang seniman,misalnya, jenis-jenis menu makanan bisa dilihat begitu erat terkait dengan percaturan politik atau pun musik. Maka jenis “kebenaran” yang ditampilkannya pun bisa sangat berbeda dengan “kebenaran ilmiah”. Kebenaran yang tampil dalam seni adalah “kebenaran eksistensial/eksperiensial” yang seringkali tak terukur. Bila dalam dunia sains 1+1 = 2, maka dalam dunia eksistensial 1 unsur ditambah unsur lain bisa saja menghasilkan sinergi aneh yang bila diangkakan menjadi 3 atau 7. Belum lagi jenis wacana yang digunakan pun adalah wacana metaforis-imajistik, bukan literal-verbal.
Semua ini tentunya perlu diperhitungkan dan mestinya membuat kita waspada bahwa penggunaan istilah “paradigma” dari dunia sains di dalam dunia seni bisa membawa pengertian yang sangat berbeda. Dan sejauh mana sesungguhnya diperlukan. Tulisan ini jauh dari pretensi untuk membicarakan masalahnya secara komprehensip. Ini hanyalah rangsangan awal bagi diskusi dan pembahasan selanjutnya, terutama pembahasan yang lebih konkrit menyangkut realitas seni di Indonesia
[1] Kita tahu , bagi Plato terdapat dua dunia,dunia konkrit ini dan dunia ideal yang terdiri dari idea-idea. Idea-idea itu adalah paradeigma alias dasar dan model bagi segala hal konkrit di dunia ini.
[2] Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago : University of Chicago Press,2nd ed.,1970, hlm 11-12
[3] Ibid . hlm 12-13
[4] J.Needham et.al. A Shorter Science and Civilization in China, vol . I ( Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1978 ) hlm.170
[5] Lihat Ilya Prigogine et. al. dalam Order Out of Chaos ( London : Flamingo, 1990) hlm 7-10
[6] bandingkan juga D.S. Kothari , Some Thought on Truth ( New Delhi : Indian National Science Academy, Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg,1975), hlm 5
[7] lihat Susan Sontag, A Susan Sontag Reader, (London : Penguin,1983) hlm143-149
[8] Bahkan orang seprogressif E.H. Gombrich pun , kendati dengan perumusan yang kedengaran canggih, toh tak bisa menyembunyikan sikap macam ini, ketika ia bilang bahwa orang primitif pada dasarnya tak bisa berposisi sebagai “saksi mata” (eye-witness ), melainkan ia selalu meng-konstruksi suatu imaji, suatu “model minimum”, seperti model-model penyederhanaan bentuk pada mainan/gambar kanak-kanak. Seni primitif memang tidak mengimitasi realitas. Baru kelak lama-kelamaan skemata itu akan mendekati tampilan visual “saksi mata” . Lihat E.H.Gombrich, A Lifelong Interests, conversations on Art and Science with Didier Eribon, London : Thames and Hudson Ltd.,1993, hlm 98 ff
[9] Thomas Kuhn, op.cit. hlm 164-70
[10] lihat Gombrich, op.cit. hlm 73-75
[11] lihat wawancara Arthur Danto dengan Suzi Gablik, dalam Suzi Gablik, Conversation before the end of time , London : Thames and Hudson, 1995,hlm277; juga Arthur C.Danto, Beyond the Brillo Box : The Visual Arts in Post-historical Perspectives ,New York: Farrar,Strauss and Giroux,1992.
[12] E.H.Gombrich, The Story of Art, London : Phaidon Press,1950. fifteenth ed.1989
[13] Uraian lebih rinci tentang apa artinya “bermain” lihat Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method, London : Sheed & Ward, 1975,hlm 91-108
Kamis, 05 Juni 2008
ART WITHOUT "ISM"
By : Bambang Sugiharto
The history of art, especially as it appears in the West, has been characterised by the persistent tendency to question the long tradition of painting as the privileged medium of representation. The struggle with the canvas found its decisive turning point in Duchamp’s works (ranging from ready made objects,mixed media,installation to film). Ever since Duchamp, no longer under gravitational pull of the canvas, artist was free to express any idea through whatever means possible. While the buzzword of today is “ the death of the subject/author”, in the world of art, ironically, art becomes more and more sheer personal statement.
The Shift of Focus
The shift of focus from ‘objective’ representation to personal expression and ideas/concepts, as well as the manner and the means in which the expression is conveyed, have led to such a proliferation of materials and forms. And this eventually leads to the questioning of the very nature of ‘Art’ itself. Anything can be called ‘art’, somehow that Arthur Danto once declared “the end of art”, as we have known it. Whereas the usage of any technological media to render meaning and new ideas has made the critic Gene Youngblood call all art today as ‘experimental’. “All art is experimental, or it isn’t art”, he said.
Facing so many forms of art especially those coming from the alliance between art and technology, we cannot but realize that the common “isms” associated with the art such as Cubism,Surrealism,Conceptualism,etc. have run their course. When Walter Benjamin talked about the lost of “aura” in the technology of reproduction, today digital technology has made the artist able to introduce new forms of “production” not “reproduction”. While Baudrillard talks about ‘simulation’, Virilio says, more acurately, that we are entering a world with two realities, the actual and the virtual, and there is no ‘simulation’ but ‘substitution’. Any notion related to representation of the real seems to be obsolete today. In art, visual literacy is no longer limited to ‘the object’, it now embraces the fluid, ever-changing universe, an interactive world that can be interdependent in its incorporation of ‘the viewer’ into the completion of the work of art.
The Fluid Reality
It is this the same fluid reality which is also captured and played upon in one of the new media arts called ‘Video Art’. It is video’s capacity for instantaneous transmission of image that is most appealing to artist, in addition to its relative affordability. Different from film, Video records and reveals instant time, whereas film has to be treated and processed. Film is contemplative and ‘distanced’; it detaches viewer from present reality. Furthermore, multiple projection devices make possible for the video artists to represent the often chaotic and random feel of multiple images competing constantly for our attention, just like fluid reality. Video also gives more sense of intimacy usually not realizable in film. As in the works of Acconci and Nauman, video becomes an extension of the creative process and the artistic gesture so long associated with Abstarct Expressionists physical act of painting. Video also gives more space for the intentionality of the artist. The work is not a product for sale or mass consumtion. At issue here is precisely the intentionality of the artist. The iconoclastic minimalist intention of Nam June Paik in his work Zen for Film, for instance, where he projected clear film leader inside a television set, sought to question the common associations viewers bring to the watching of a film, stripping film to its barest essential (the film stock itself).
Other pervasive form of expression of art today working with real time is the so called ‘Performance Art’. This is the fruit of the cross fertilization between theater,dance,film,video and visual art. Although it is usually related to Dada and Fluxus the phenomenon is in fact nourished by much more complex movements of art in the late twentieth century in many parts of the world. Its multimedia character, including the use of video camera, has made possible for the artist to reveal the nature of ‘process’ in art, that is, art as ‘activity’ and ‘experience’ in real time usually missing in painting. Besides, it makes possible to venture into uncharted waters of the conventional art : the body as the source and specific language, the possibility of mixing sound, movement, image etc to make a complex statement, the lost of words and emotional deprivation, the close connection between everyday objects and events and art,etc.etc.
Technology is indeed changing rapidly, and with it the artist’s field and language are expanding. When in the twentieth century we saw the merging of art and the everyday, perhaps in the twenty-first centrury we would witness further the merging of the real and the virtual. After all, what artists do has always been challenging or altering our way of looking at things and our mode of experiencing the world, including the technological world. It is the nature of art as personal statement that makes possible for us to see or experience things differently and find again and again the ‘other side’ of reality; be it reality of history of art, the politics of the day, or the politics of the self; no matter West or East. This ‘otherness’ is something we can always expect from any kind of works of art.
* the article was written for Bandung Video,Film and New Media Art Forum (bavf-NAF 1) August 2002.
The history of art, especially as it appears in the West, has been characterised by the persistent tendency to question the long tradition of painting as the privileged medium of representation. The struggle with the canvas found its decisive turning point in Duchamp’s works (ranging from ready made objects,mixed media,installation to film). Ever since Duchamp, no longer under gravitational pull of the canvas, artist was free to express any idea through whatever means possible. While the buzzword of today is “ the death of the subject/author”, in the world of art, ironically, art becomes more and more sheer personal statement.
The Shift of Focus
The shift of focus from ‘objective’ representation to personal expression and ideas/concepts, as well as the manner and the means in which the expression is conveyed, have led to such a proliferation of materials and forms. And this eventually leads to the questioning of the very nature of ‘Art’ itself. Anything can be called ‘art’, somehow that Arthur Danto once declared “the end of art”, as we have known it. Whereas the usage of any technological media to render meaning and new ideas has made the critic Gene Youngblood call all art today as ‘experimental’. “All art is experimental, or it isn’t art”, he said.
Facing so many forms of art especially those coming from the alliance between art and technology, we cannot but realize that the common “isms” associated with the art such as Cubism,Surrealism,Conceptualism,etc. have run their course. When Walter Benjamin talked about the lost of “aura” in the technology of reproduction, today digital technology has made the artist able to introduce new forms of “production” not “reproduction”. While Baudrillard talks about ‘simulation’, Virilio says, more acurately, that we are entering a world with two realities, the actual and the virtual, and there is no ‘simulation’ but ‘substitution’. Any notion related to representation of the real seems to be obsolete today. In art, visual literacy is no longer limited to ‘the object’, it now embraces the fluid, ever-changing universe, an interactive world that can be interdependent in its incorporation of ‘the viewer’ into the completion of the work of art.
The Fluid Reality
It is this the same fluid reality which is also captured and played upon in one of the new media arts called ‘Video Art’. It is video’s capacity for instantaneous transmission of image that is most appealing to artist, in addition to its relative affordability. Different from film, Video records and reveals instant time, whereas film has to be treated and processed. Film is contemplative and ‘distanced’; it detaches viewer from present reality. Furthermore, multiple projection devices make possible for the video artists to represent the often chaotic and random feel of multiple images competing constantly for our attention, just like fluid reality. Video also gives more sense of intimacy usually not realizable in film. As in the works of Acconci and Nauman, video becomes an extension of the creative process and the artistic gesture so long associated with Abstarct Expressionists physical act of painting. Video also gives more space for the intentionality of the artist. The work is not a product for sale or mass consumtion. At issue here is precisely the intentionality of the artist. The iconoclastic minimalist intention of Nam June Paik in his work Zen for Film, for instance, where he projected clear film leader inside a television set, sought to question the common associations viewers bring to the watching of a film, stripping film to its barest essential (the film stock itself).
Other pervasive form of expression of art today working with real time is the so called ‘Performance Art’. This is the fruit of the cross fertilization between theater,dance,film,video and visual art. Although it is usually related to Dada and Fluxus the phenomenon is in fact nourished by much more complex movements of art in the late twentieth century in many parts of the world. Its multimedia character, including the use of video camera, has made possible for the artist to reveal the nature of ‘process’ in art, that is, art as ‘activity’ and ‘experience’ in real time usually missing in painting. Besides, it makes possible to venture into uncharted waters of the conventional art : the body as the source and specific language, the possibility of mixing sound, movement, image etc to make a complex statement, the lost of words and emotional deprivation, the close connection between everyday objects and events and art,etc.etc.
Technology is indeed changing rapidly, and with it the artist’s field and language are expanding. When in the twentieth century we saw the merging of art and the everyday, perhaps in the twenty-first centrury we would witness further the merging of the real and the virtual. After all, what artists do has always been challenging or altering our way of looking at things and our mode of experiencing the world, including the technological world. It is the nature of art as personal statement that makes possible for us to see or experience things differently and find again and again the ‘other side’ of reality; be it reality of history of art, the politics of the day, or the politics of the self; no matter West or East. This ‘otherness’ is something we can always expect from any kind of works of art.
* the article was written for Bandung Video,Film and New Media Art Forum (bavf-NAF 1) August 2002.
NEGATIVE MEMORY,ART AND THE WORLD PEACE
By : Ignatius Bambang Sugiharto
The world peace has always been connected to politics or law, but rarely to art. While the importance of art for human soul is generally acknowledged, its connection with wider human socio-cultural life is often unrecognized. Negative experience in general, or negative memory in particular, can be taken as the bridge connecting art to world peace. This paper will explore the negative memory and experience: how they are related to the possibility of world peace, and how the arts, especially in its new development, can play significant role.
Negative Memory and its Vicious Circle
Memory is the guardian of the ultimate dialectic of historicity, that is, the dialectic between the past, the present and the future. Memory renders the past constitutive of the present. By means of memory, history becomes history of the present. In terms of existential meaning and value, the past is not something merely elapsed or superseded, but rather, the ‘having been’ of an unfinished project, a part of an incomplete ideal, a mission to accomplish.
In the writing of history, keeping memory alive is tantamount to an ‘act of sepulcher’, ‘an act of repeated entombment’, a ritual, with its prolonged mourning;[1] a celebration of continuity vis-à-vis, or despite, the discontinuity. Negative memory, in particular, renders the discourse of history critical, hence ‘critical history’, where negative memory is never to remain a mere fact, but rather, to be taken as a protest demanding critical recognition. This means, negative memory is not to be viewed as a simple mnêmê – a spontaneous irruption of images of an event into awareness- , but rather, an anamnesis –an act of recollection. In this way negative memory expands collective memory, even corrects and criticizes the actual memory of a community. The work of negative memory is successful not only if it gives rise to a resurrection of the past, but above all, if it emancipates us from the negative past.
The dilemma, however, is that, as a negative experience, the memory is always at the risk of self-censorship or being deliberately forgotten. Indeed, as mnêmê, memory is always in the midst of the undecidable polarity between forgetting through effacement and forgetting through reservation, between ars oblivionis and ars memoriae, between destruction and construction, amnesia and anamnesis.[2] Ricoeur calls this ‘the irreducible equivocalness’ of forgetting, of which ‘there is no possible balance sheet’.[3] As in the case of mass destruction or genocide (Holocaust, Hiroshima, Khmer Rouge, etc) the suffering is such that the negative memory, the experience of negation, is oftentimes really unforgettable. Hence there cannot be a happy forgetting in the same way as a happy memory; no possible balance sheet. On the other hand, if anamnesis, memorization or not-forgetting, means perpetuating vengeance, history will remain locked up within the deadly oscillation between eternal hatred and forgetful memory. It is here that forgiveness comes to be imperative. Forgiveness is the rational way out of the deadly oscillation between the memory of suffering or hatred and absolute forgetting. To break the vicious circle of anamnesis and amnesia there must be amnesty. Like amnesty, forgiveness is the silencing of the non-forgetting memory, the ceasing of vengeance, the forgetting of the unforgettable, the negation of negation.
The Role of Art
Forgiveness, in turn, requires a transformation of memory, from memory as affection into memory as reflective recognition, from pathos to logos. Forgiveness requires the belief in the power of reflection and speculation over the irreparable. And the most effective means to render possible such transformation is the arts : monument, film, theatre, painting, novel, poem, etc. Through its capability of touching the heart, the soul and imagination, art has the potential to expose the irreducible equivocalness of negative memory, and at the same time to transcend the pain as well as to transform its destructive forces; it is capable of interweaving, in a recuperative and re-creating manner, the burden of the past, the attention to the present, and the expectation of the future. Art brings the past into gestures of inauguration, as in rituals of initiation, for the sake of a new beginning, a new way of looking at things. It is no coincidence that in this case the term ‘memory’ or ‘forgetting’ is often related to the word ‘art’ as in the terms of ars memoriae and ars oblivionis.
In this context, however, art is neither simply concerned with skill (ars, tékhnê ), nor merely with beauty, but rather, with ‘creation’, creating a new perception (poeín , aísthesthai); or even further, it is concerned more with ‘truth’, be it in the Kantian sense of the ‘sublime’, in the Psychoanalitic sense of the ‘subliminal’, or even better, in the Heideggerian sense of alêtheia, that is, truth as the disclosure or the openness of new possibilities of meaning and of being in the world: truth as the lighting and concealing of beings.[4] Art is the “setting-itself-into-work of truth”, the creative preserving of truth. Creative in that it brings the unsayable or the unthinkable into being, and simultaneously re-creates what is ordinary, defamiliarizes what is familiar, and in so doing transforms our accustomed ties to the world, hence the opening up of new possibilities of looking at things.[5]
To see whether or not art today is still capable of accomplishing the mission of revealing such truth, however, we have to consider first some significant changes in the world of contemporary art. The striking phenomena, among other things, are the contemporary tendency of art to eliminate its stasis and object-centred character in favor of interactive process, its tendency to dissolve itself in the banality of life, and its excessive obsession with violence, pain, terror, and thanatos in general. While this has returned art to its primal habitat, it also requires new modes of appreciation.
Art Today
Today, when we come to the contemporary practices and experiences of the arts, our initial fascination often turns into bafflement, for the arts confront us with a disconcerting array of materials and perceptual activities. Traditional aesthetic theory seems at loss in front of the works of art with new materials, such as plastics, acrylics, gas, chemical ingredients, telepathic power, holographic images; electronically produced sounds; novels and plays without plots, and so on and so forth. And even basic distinctions within the arts fail to hold, for we are no longer able to draw the line between design, decoration, illustration, and fine art, or let us say, between musical sound and noise. Art seems no longer content with its special venues and discrete forms, but intrudes on building walls, subway stations and city streets. The perceptual modalities required for the appreciation of art have also changed and have broken out of conventional patterns. At times we have to enter into the space of the art work, as in environmental sculpture; contribute to its process, as in interactive theatre, installation or performance-art, etc. This involvement with the art objects and in the aesthetic processes, in turn, suggests a participatory attention or ‘aesthetic engagement’ in the place of the traditional account of ‘disinterestedness’.[6] The enlargement of aesthetic sensibility has produced the deliberate elimination of perceptual distance between the artist, the work and the viewer. Henceforth art becomes more a process of creative interplay rather than a stasis.
But the more significant change is the integration of art and life in general, especially in the usage of the materials of everyday life. The music of John cage uses sounds of all sorts and considered any kind of noise as musical material. There are Happenings or Performance-art which deliberately draw their themes and materials from the ongoing course of ordinary life. ‘One could view everyday life itself as theatre’ says Cage. Pop art plays with the intimate relation between art and life. Robert Rauschenberg denies, for example, any division between what he calls ‘Sacred Art’ and ‘Profane Life’ and insists on working ‘in the gap between the two’. Indeed, as he once remarked, ‘There is no reason not to consider the world one gigantic painting’. Theatre, too, has joined the other arts here. Everything is a fitting subject, and in the most candid, graphic terms, from race relations to homosexuality, deformity, and the sex act. The distancing logic of a plot has receded and in its place the focus is on the ordinary details of life that we never trouble to notice, such as the series of movements by which a man sits in a chair, or a woman handles a cup or moves her lips, etc. All this illustrates what has become a motif in the twentieth-century art : a deliberate dethroning of art and its reintegration into the course of normal human activity.
Thus, the world of contemporary art has been characterized by the extension of the art object, the intensification of appreciative experience, the enlargement of art to include the total environment.[7] Corollary to this is the significant shift of focus from objects to process and awareness. What counts in art today is not the object in itself. The object may be absorbed into the totality of the aesthetic field or even ‘disappear’, in the case of ‘non-object’ art like conceptual art or social project. The art object is a means, an instrument, for the heightening of perceptual awareness and the intensification of experience. The object can even be anything. This may sound like a radical upheaval from the point of view of conventional aesthetics, but this new development is perhaps simply a return to its origin. For art in its earliest meanings, as we can still find particularly in pre-modern societies, was neither the cultivated fineness of high civilization nor a matter of disinterested contemplation on a particular works of a genius, but simply the shaping, the joining together, and the celebration, of things, for the sake of infusing human feeling, imagination and meaning into them. It is a sort of multiplication and proliferation of human soul in various activities; sundry modes of incarnating the spirit in the world of things. It is a matter of sensitivity to the qualitative shape of human experience in their surrounding world, but also of various efforts to re-create the world in accordance with human aspirations. This explains why in the pre-modern life, as it is also now, the arts include any practices of creative human activity, such as festivals, crafts, ceremonies and rituals, even the culinary arts, the art of gardening, the art of flower arranging, etc. It is not without reason if today we still retain this general meaning of ‘art’ in the terms such as the art of conversation, the art of management, the art of politics, etc. Indeed art has no longer any frame or distinct boundaries, for now it encompasses the whole range of human activities. While it might look like a degradation of aesthetics, it may precisely indicate the opposite: the radicalization of aesthetics, the aestheticization of life and environment. In this kind of art, it seems that the traditional key-concepts such as beauty, the sublime, contemplation, technical ingenuity, or formal configuration are no more central. Perhaps what is essential in art today is precisely its ‘poetic’ character, poetic in the sense of ‘making’ and ‘creating’ life itself. For sure here ‘making’ in the sense of ‘craftsmanship’ is retained, even extended and broadened, but what counts even more is creative making in its deeper sense: that the formless experience is given a form, the unsayable is articulated, the imaginable is made conscious, the conscious is made perceivable and tangible. And equally essential is the converse : the visible is set in the invisible, what is tangible and seen is connected to the untouchable and the ungraspable. This surely echoes the basic thoughts of Heidegger, but also in line with John Dewey’s emphasis on the centrality of experience in the appreciation of art.[8]
Art and Negative Experience
Notwithstanding its positive side, taken at its face value indeed the art of the twentieth century may well show a serious degradation in that it is so much characterized by terror, cruelty, brutality, perversion, folly, void, necrophilia or thanatophilia, and includes all kinds of abjections. Just take for example, the actionism of Rudolf Schwarzkögler who cut his penis to death; self-destruction of Paul Celan, Chris Burden or Mark Rothko; theatre of cruelty of Artaud; the suspension of the pain of living of Stelarc’s body-art; or , more recently, the exhibit of 200 human corpses by Günther von Hagens , to name only a few of them. In this sense, contemporary art is undoubtedly the art of negative experience par excellence. In its ‘decomposition’ or ‘dematerialization’, art derives its power not from a sense of unity, but from the intimation of the fragmentary, the broken. Rather than suggesting wholeness or redemption , it represents the breach itself, the ongoing need for reconciliation and forgiveness, while at the same time claiming its impossibility and becoming emblematic of its sufferings. Art-work becomes a token of the absence of meaning, of a void; the void made palpable.
All this negativity, however, cannot be attributed exclusively to the arts, for the art-world is itself the expression of the broader cultural body, albeit it also feeds back into and affects the culture, in subtle ways. Therefore, when we talk of contemporary art, what is important, yet often neglected, is : contemporary with what cultural symptoms ?
In fact the cultural atmosphere at the end of the second millennium was marked by depression, desacralization of life and human body, and disenchantment of the modern secular world, due to the absurdity of two World Wars. Modern transactions of meaning and value had also resulted in the invalidation of traditional frames of symbol, hence the loss of symbols, which, in turn, has generated the difficulty in articulating profound existential experiences. The extremity of art correlates also with the praxis of extreme sciences, that –like extreme sports- were striving some pointless experimentations transgressing the limit, by creating a life genetically programmed and producing abnormal chimera of all kinds. The shock of images, the meaninglessness of words, the overexposure of obscenity and folly in the art world were basically also analogous to the desensitization by the media that was exploiting the ‘spectacle of abjection’ or ‘reality show’, with its fake documents and conjuring tricks, simply in order to gain high ratings.[9]
Thus, our problem today is not concerned simply with the memory of certain negative experiences, but rather, with the whole general mode of existence of the past to the present, which seems to be severely saturated with negativity. Today the situation is even exacerbated by the production of fear, contradictory certainty and intolerance toward differences. Hence terrorism, solidification of identity, paranoia, xenophobia, and genocide. Nevertheless, art does not simply express the negativity, that is, the void, the chaos, or the spiritual blindness of the socio-cultural plight. It may serve also as a diagnostic tools for identifying the disease; a process of intensifying and heightening our perceptual awareness of the crises; a necessary visualization of the critical interface between body, mind and soul; a process of integrating the dark side -the shadow- into human psyche; and an essential mapping of the extremes of human desire and consciousness. Art renders palpable the ugliness, the meanness, the unbearableness of life, and this, in turn, will open the possibility to see what ultimately is more desirable, the deeper mystery of soul, the new and different possibilities of existence, what we usually call ‘peace’.
Art, Forgiveness and Peace
Whatever it may mean, ‘peace’ can be taken as a sort of umbrella term for anything emancipatory, for any expectation of a better future, for more meaningful and more desirable quality of coexistence with the ‘other ’. When negativity is not mere memory of the past, but rather, the general human condition of today, then the focus should be the expectation of the future, while the agent is anonymous, a matter of complex web of interrelationship in which the whole human race are involved and take part. In this context ‘forgiveness’ would mean ‘negation of the negation’ in the sense of, first, seeing the negativity as the clue toward what is more desirable, which otherwise remains unknown; second, negating the impossibility for us to be the perpetrator, and recognizing the possibility that the ultimate root of the negativity may be our very selves : each of us is the agent, not the victim. And here art plays double role. First, by means of its intimacy with negativity, the art discloses this truth of human illusions, sufferings and dreams, somehow that they can be personally recognized, in somatic, cognitive, imaginative or even spiritual way. Second, the integration of art with the daily life returns the poetics of the ephemeral, the sensibility to see further beyond banality, the celebration of ever new beginning, the courage to re-create one’s own life in accordance with higher ideal. And thereby art becomes again the procreation of human soul in their sundry activities. Yet, when all is said, one still wonders whether without beauty and transcendence, art will really be able to help humans transcend their own trap or reach the desired ‘peace’.
Bambang Sugiharto, Professor of Philosophy, Parahyangan Catholic University, Bandung, Indonesia. E-mail : ignatiussugiharto@yahoo.com
N O T E S
[1] This is a poetic terminology used by Paul Ricoeur in emphasizing the moral responsibility for the past. The work of mourning separates the past from the present and makes way for a better future. See Paul Ricoeur, Memory, History, Forgetting, trans. Kathleen Blamey et al, (Chicago : The University of Chicago Press, 2004), p 499
[2] Cfr. Ibid . pp 503-5
[3]For Ricoeur, it is ‘equivocal’ in the sense that there is no superior point of view from which one could perceive the common source of destruction and of construction. Ibid. p 503
[4] See Heidegger, “ The Origin of the work of art” in David F. Krell, (ed) ,Martin Heidegger, Basic Writings, (London : Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978) p.184
[5] This is the ‘poetic’ character of all the arts, which , like ‘naming’ by language, it bestows, grounds and sets up a new beginning of being in the world. Ibid. p. 186
[6] ‘Aesthetic Engagement’ is the term coined by Arnold Berleant in his effort to redefine ‘Aesthetics’ in terms of contemporary phenomena of the arts. See, Arnold Berleant, Rethinking Aesthetics,( Hampshire : Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2004) p. 9
[7] Arnold Berleant sees this as stages of evolution of awareness, which I take simply as different characters with no distinct period or stage. Cfr. Ibid. p 111
[8] Cfr. John Dewey, Art as Experience, (New York : Perigee Books, 1934) Ch. II & XIV
[9] For more insight into the correlation between the arts and the modern cultural plight see Paul Virillio, Art and Fear, Trans. Julie Rose (London : Continuum , 2003) p 50-55
The world peace has always been connected to politics or law, but rarely to art. While the importance of art for human soul is generally acknowledged, its connection with wider human socio-cultural life is often unrecognized. Negative experience in general, or negative memory in particular, can be taken as the bridge connecting art to world peace. This paper will explore the negative memory and experience: how they are related to the possibility of world peace, and how the arts, especially in its new development, can play significant role.
Negative Memory and its Vicious Circle
Memory is the guardian of the ultimate dialectic of historicity, that is, the dialectic between the past, the present and the future. Memory renders the past constitutive of the present. By means of memory, history becomes history of the present. In terms of existential meaning and value, the past is not something merely elapsed or superseded, but rather, the ‘having been’ of an unfinished project, a part of an incomplete ideal, a mission to accomplish.
In the writing of history, keeping memory alive is tantamount to an ‘act of sepulcher’, ‘an act of repeated entombment’, a ritual, with its prolonged mourning;[1] a celebration of continuity vis-à-vis, or despite, the discontinuity. Negative memory, in particular, renders the discourse of history critical, hence ‘critical history’, where negative memory is never to remain a mere fact, but rather, to be taken as a protest demanding critical recognition. This means, negative memory is not to be viewed as a simple mnêmê – a spontaneous irruption of images of an event into awareness- , but rather, an anamnesis –an act of recollection. In this way negative memory expands collective memory, even corrects and criticizes the actual memory of a community. The work of negative memory is successful not only if it gives rise to a resurrection of the past, but above all, if it emancipates us from the negative past.
The dilemma, however, is that, as a negative experience, the memory is always at the risk of self-censorship or being deliberately forgotten. Indeed, as mnêmê, memory is always in the midst of the undecidable polarity between forgetting through effacement and forgetting through reservation, between ars oblivionis and ars memoriae, between destruction and construction, amnesia and anamnesis.[2] Ricoeur calls this ‘the irreducible equivocalness’ of forgetting, of which ‘there is no possible balance sheet’.[3] As in the case of mass destruction or genocide (Holocaust, Hiroshima, Khmer Rouge, etc) the suffering is such that the negative memory, the experience of negation, is oftentimes really unforgettable. Hence there cannot be a happy forgetting in the same way as a happy memory; no possible balance sheet. On the other hand, if anamnesis, memorization or not-forgetting, means perpetuating vengeance, history will remain locked up within the deadly oscillation between eternal hatred and forgetful memory. It is here that forgiveness comes to be imperative. Forgiveness is the rational way out of the deadly oscillation between the memory of suffering or hatred and absolute forgetting. To break the vicious circle of anamnesis and amnesia there must be amnesty. Like amnesty, forgiveness is the silencing of the non-forgetting memory, the ceasing of vengeance, the forgetting of the unforgettable, the negation of negation.
The Role of Art
Forgiveness, in turn, requires a transformation of memory, from memory as affection into memory as reflective recognition, from pathos to logos. Forgiveness requires the belief in the power of reflection and speculation over the irreparable. And the most effective means to render possible such transformation is the arts : monument, film, theatre, painting, novel, poem, etc. Through its capability of touching the heart, the soul and imagination, art has the potential to expose the irreducible equivocalness of negative memory, and at the same time to transcend the pain as well as to transform its destructive forces; it is capable of interweaving, in a recuperative and re-creating manner, the burden of the past, the attention to the present, and the expectation of the future. Art brings the past into gestures of inauguration, as in rituals of initiation, for the sake of a new beginning, a new way of looking at things. It is no coincidence that in this case the term ‘memory’ or ‘forgetting’ is often related to the word ‘art’ as in the terms of ars memoriae and ars oblivionis.
In this context, however, art is neither simply concerned with skill (ars, tékhnê ), nor merely with beauty, but rather, with ‘creation’, creating a new perception (poeín , aísthesthai); or even further, it is concerned more with ‘truth’, be it in the Kantian sense of the ‘sublime’, in the Psychoanalitic sense of the ‘subliminal’, or even better, in the Heideggerian sense of alêtheia, that is, truth as the disclosure or the openness of new possibilities of meaning and of being in the world: truth as the lighting and concealing of beings.[4] Art is the “setting-itself-into-work of truth”, the creative preserving of truth. Creative in that it brings the unsayable or the unthinkable into being, and simultaneously re-creates what is ordinary, defamiliarizes what is familiar, and in so doing transforms our accustomed ties to the world, hence the opening up of new possibilities of looking at things.[5]
To see whether or not art today is still capable of accomplishing the mission of revealing such truth, however, we have to consider first some significant changes in the world of contemporary art. The striking phenomena, among other things, are the contemporary tendency of art to eliminate its stasis and object-centred character in favor of interactive process, its tendency to dissolve itself in the banality of life, and its excessive obsession with violence, pain, terror, and thanatos in general. While this has returned art to its primal habitat, it also requires new modes of appreciation.
Art Today
Today, when we come to the contemporary practices and experiences of the arts, our initial fascination often turns into bafflement, for the arts confront us with a disconcerting array of materials and perceptual activities. Traditional aesthetic theory seems at loss in front of the works of art with new materials, such as plastics, acrylics, gas, chemical ingredients, telepathic power, holographic images; electronically produced sounds; novels and plays without plots, and so on and so forth. And even basic distinctions within the arts fail to hold, for we are no longer able to draw the line between design, decoration, illustration, and fine art, or let us say, between musical sound and noise. Art seems no longer content with its special venues and discrete forms, but intrudes on building walls, subway stations and city streets. The perceptual modalities required for the appreciation of art have also changed and have broken out of conventional patterns. At times we have to enter into the space of the art work, as in environmental sculpture; contribute to its process, as in interactive theatre, installation or performance-art, etc. This involvement with the art objects and in the aesthetic processes, in turn, suggests a participatory attention or ‘aesthetic engagement’ in the place of the traditional account of ‘disinterestedness’.[6] The enlargement of aesthetic sensibility has produced the deliberate elimination of perceptual distance between the artist, the work and the viewer. Henceforth art becomes more a process of creative interplay rather than a stasis.
But the more significant change is the integration of art and life in general, especially in the usage of the materials of everyday life. The music of John cage uses sounds of all sorts and considered any kind of noise as musical material. There are Happenings or Performance-art which deliberately draw their themes and materials from the ongoing course of ordinary life. ‘One could view everyday life itself as theatre’ says Cage. Pop art plays with the intimate relation between art and life. Robert Rauschenberg denies, for example, any division between what he calls ‘Sacred Art’ and ‘Profane Life’ and insists on working ‘in the gap between the two’. Indeed, as he once remarked, ‘There is no reason not to consider the world one gigantic painting’. Theatre, too, has joined the other arts here. Everything is a fitting subject, and in the most candid, graphic terms, from race relations to homosexuality, deformity, and the sex act. The distancing logic of a plot has receded and in its place the focus is on the ordinary details of life that we never trouble to notice, such as the series of movements by which a man sits in a chair, or a woman handles a cup or moves her lips, etc. All this illustrates what has become a motif in the twentieth-century art : a deliberate dethroning of art and its reintegration into the course of normal human activity.
Thus, the world of contemporary art has been characterized by the extension of the art object, the intensification of appreciative experience, the enlargement of art to include the total environment.[7] Corollary to this is the significant shift of focus from objects to process and awareness. What counts in art today is not the object in itself. The object may be absorbed into the totality of the aesthetic field or even ‘disappear’, in the case of ‘non-object’ art like conceptual art or social project. The art object is a means, an instrument, for the heightening of perceptual awareness and the intensification of experience. The object can even be anything. This may sound like a radical upheaval from the point of view of conventional aesthetics, but this new development is perhaps simply a return to its origin. For art in its earliest meanings, as we can still find particularly in pre-modern societies, was neither the cultivated fineness of high civilization nor a matter of disinterested contemplation on a particular works of a genius, but simply the shaping, the joining together, and the celebration, of things, for the sake of infusing human feeling, imagination and meaning into them. It is a sort of multiplication and proliferation of human soul in various activities; sundry modes of incarnating the spirit in the world of things. It is a matter of sensitivity to the qualitative shape of human experience in their surrounding world, but also of various efforts to re-create the world in accordance with human aspirations. This explains why in the pre-modern life, as it is also now, the arts include any practices of creative human activity, such as festivals, crafts, ceremonies and rituals, even the culinary arts, the art of gardening, the art of flower arranging, etc. It is not without reason if today we still retain this general meaning of ‘art’ in the terms such as the art of conversation, the art of management, the art of politics, etc. Indeed art has no longer any frame or distinct boundaries, for now it encompasses the whole range of human activities. While it might look like a degradation of aesthetics, it may precisely indicate the opposite: the radicalization of aesthetics, the aestheticization of life and environment. In this kind of art, it seems that the traditional key-concepts such as beauty, the sublime, contemplation, technical ingenuity, or formal configuration are no more central. Perhaps what is essential in art today is precisely its ‘poetic’ character, poetic in the sense of ‘making’ and ‘creating’ life itself. For sure here ‘making’ in the sense of ‘craftsmanship’ is retained, even extended and broadened, but what counts even more is creative making in its deeper sense: that the formless experience is given a form, the unsayable is articulated, the imaginable is made conscious, the conscious is made perceivable and tangible. And equally essential is the converse : the visible is set in the invisible, what is tangible and seen is connected to the untouchable and the ungraspable. This surely echoes the basic thoughts of Heidegger, but also in line with John Dewey’s emphasis on the centrality of experience in the appreciation of art.[8]
Art and Negative Experience
Notwithstanding its positive side, taken at its face value indeed the art of the twentieth century may well show a serious degradation in that it is so much characterized by terror, cruelty, brutality, perversion, folly, void, necrophilia or thanatophilia, and includes all kinds of abjections. Just take for example, the actionism of Rudolf Schwarzkögler who cut his penis to death; self-destruction of Paul Celan, Chris Burden or Mark Rothko; theatre of cruelty of Artaud; the suspension of the pain of living of Stelarc’s body-art; or , more recently, the exhibit of 200 human corpses by Günther von Hagens , to name only a few of them. In this sense, contemporary art is undoubtedly the art of negative experience par excellence. In its ‘decomposition’ or ‘dematerialization’, art derives its power not from a sense of unity, but from the intimation of the fragmentary, the broken. Rather than suggesting wholeness or redemption , it represents the breach itself, the ongoing need for reconciliation and forgiveness, while at the same time claiming its impossibility and becoming emblematic of its sufferings. Art-work becomes a token of the absence of meaning, of a void; the void made palpable.
All this negativity, however, cannot be attributed exclusively to the arts, for the art-world is itself the expression of the broader cultural body, albeit it also feeds back into and affects the culture, in subtle ways. Therefore, when we talk of contemporary art, what is important, yet often neglected, is : contemporary with what cultural symptoms ?
In fact the cultural atmosphere at the end of the second millennium was marked by depression, desacralization of life and human body, and disenchantment of the modern secular world, due to the absurdity of two World Wars. Modern transactions of meaning and value had also resulted in the invalidation of traditional frames of symbol, hence the loss of symbols, which, in turn, has generated the difficulty in articulating profound existential experiences. The extremity of art correlates also with the praxis of extreme sciences, that –like extreme sports- were striving some pointless experimentations transgressing the limit, by creating a life genetically programmed and producing abnormal chimera of all kinds. The shock of images, the meaninglessness of words, the overexposure of obscenity and folly in the art world were basically also analogous to the desensitization by the media that was exploiting the ‘spectacle of abjection’ or ‘reality show’, with its fake documents and conjuring tricks, simply in order to gain high ratings.[9]
Thus, our problem today is not concerned simply with the memory of certain negative experiences, but rather, with the whole general mode of existence of the past to the present, which seems to be severely saturated with negativity. Today the situation is even exacerbated by the production of fear, contradictory certainty and intolerance toward differences. Hence terrorism, solidification of identity, paranoia, xenophobia, and genocide. Nevertheless, art does not simply express the negativity, that is, the void, the chaos, or the spiritual blindness of the socio-cultural plight. It may serve also as a diagnostic tools for identifying the disease; a process of intensifying and heightening our perceptual awareness of the crises; a necessary visualization of the critical interface between body, mind and soul; a process of integrating the dark side -the shadow- into human psyche; and an essential mapping of the extremes of human desire and consciousness. Art renders palpable the ugliness, the meanness, the unbearableness of life, and this, in turn, will open the possibility to see what ultimately is more desirable, the deeper mystery of soul, the new and different possibilities of existence, what we usually call ‘peace’.
Art, Forgiveness and Peace
Whatever it may mean, ‘peace’ can be taken as a sort of umbrella term for anything emancipatory, for any expectation of a better future, for more meaningful and more desirable quality of coexistence with the ‘other ’. When negativity is not mere memory of the past, but rather, the general human condition of today, then the focus should be the expectation of the future, while the agent is anonymous, a matter of complex web of interrelationship in which the whole human race are involved and take part. In this context ‘forgiveness’ would mean ‘negation of the negation’ in the sense of, first, seeing the negativity as the clue toward what is more desirable, which otherwise remains unknown; second, negating the impossibility for us to be the perpetrator, and recognizing the possibility that the ultimate root of the negativity may be our very selves : each of us is the agent, not the victim. And here art plays double role. First, by means of its intimacy with negativity, the art discloses this truth of human illusions, sufferings and dreams, somehow that they can be personally recognized, in somatic, cognitive, imaginative or even spiritual way. Second, the integration of art with the daily life returns the poetics of the ephemeral, the sensibility to see further beyond banality, the celebration of ever new beginning, the courage to re-create one’s own life in accordance with higher ideal. And thereby art becomes again the procreation of human soul in their sundry activities. Yet, when all is said, one still wonders whether without beauty and transcendence, art will really be able to help humans transcend their own trap or reach the desired ‘peace’.
Bambang Sugiharto, Professor of Philosophy, Parahyangan Catholic University, Bandung, Indonesia. E-mail : ignatiussugiharto@yahoo.com
N O T E S
[1] This is a poetic terminology used by Paul Ricoeur in emphasizing the moral responsibility for the past. The work of mourning separates the past from the present and makes way for a better future. See Paul Ricoeur, Memory, History, Forgetting, trans. Kathleen Blamey et al, (Chicago : The University of Chicago Press, 2004), p 499
[2] Cfr. Ibid . pp 503-5
[3]For Ricoeur, it is ‘equivocal’ in the sense that there is no superior point of view from which one could perceive the common source of destruction and of construction. Ibid. p 503
[4] See Heidegger, “ The Origin of the work of art” in David F. Krell, (ed) ,Martin Heidegger, Basic Writings, (London : Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978) p.184
[5] This is the ‘poetic’ character of all the arts, which , like ‘naming’ by language, it bestows, grounds and sets up a new beginning of being in the world. Ibid. p. 186
[6] ‘Aesthetic Engagement’ is the term coined by Arnold Berleant in his effort to redefine ‘Aesthetics’ in terms of contemporary phenomena of the arts. See, Arnold Berleant, Rethinking Aesthetics,( Hampshire : Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2004) p. 9
[7] Arnold Berleant sees this as stages of evolution of awareness, which I take simply as different characters with no distinct period or stage. Cfr. Ibid. p 111
[8] Cfr. John Dewey, Art as Experience, (New York : Perigee Books, 1934) Ch. II & XIV
[9] For more insight into the correlation between the arts and the modern cultural plight see Paul Virillio, Art and Fear, Trans. Julie Rose (London : Continuum , 2003) p 50-55
ASIA AND ART TODAY
By : Bambang Sugiharto
Art is always an articulation as well as a representation of the dynamics of culture and society. In terms of modernity most of Asian countries are newly emerging states. In various forms and dynamics they are struggling to grow and shape new modes of existence. In so doing, one way or another they tend to get trapped in dilemmatic situations. This paper seeks to articulate the multilayered dilemmatic situations and thereby tries to reformulate the role of art therein.
Asian Context
In the post-colonial era Asian countries were compelled to face a dilemma. On the one hand, they had to harness their own culture, tradition and resources to develop their countries, while getting rid of western tradition. On the other, almost at the same time they had to take part in the global networks of interaction, which often times means taking back the West as their model and basic orientation, and incessant problematization of their own heritage and tradition.
The problem is that, since the time of post-World-War the globalizing movement of the West had been so much fueled by politico-economic power and interests that the issue of ‘culture’ had gradually been losing its intrinsic value. If culture is a realm in which supreme values are enacted, symbols are crafted and peculiar meanings are created, the globalizing West seems to have lost the belief that culture really matters. As Milan Kundera puts it, the West has become ‘post-cultural’.[1] Just as the primacy of religion in the medieval was replaced by the new culture of modernity -with individual as its centre of creativity-, culture is now subjugated to the predominance of political discourse and economic interests.
For Asian countries the problem is, then, manifold. While in terms of political ideology and economic power they have to manage some sort of autonomy and to safeguard their own integrity; in terms of culture they have to catch up modernity by adopting western ethos and cultural pathos, at least at the initial period of their modernity. Politically, actions and idealism are commonly construed under the pretext of particularity, collectivity or cultural tradition. Economically, the touch of tradition and the exoticism of local colors are also considered central for doing business. Yet culturally, the prevalent ethos is the modern conviction that the ultimate authority of a society is neither tradition nor religion, but rather, individual -the thinking and doubting individual in particular. And the pathos is the pursuit of the modern ideal that mature individuals are those capable of articulating their own aspirations and shaping their own lives. [2] The problem is , by the time Asian countries are busy pursuing such modern formation of individual subject by orienting their cultural strategy to the West, in the modern West itself the discourse has already shifted to the other extreme end, that is, to the claims such as ‘the end of Human Subject’ (Foucault), ‘the death of the Author’ (Barthes), etc. This post-structuralist tendency discloses critical insight on various layers of structures by which cultural meanings and individual human self-awareness are unwittingly constructed, hence the relativization of the primacy of individual subject. [3]
In Asia the situation becomes more complicated due to the fact that some of Asian countries suffer from confusing paradoxes. The so called tradition and heritage oftentimes are nothing but political slogans with no clear content and power. In some countries the terms like ‘cultural identity’ and ‘tradition’ often bear pejorative and traumatic connotations, since they have too often been manipulated by authoritarian regimes; the so called ‘harmony’ is used as a mere strategy to defend status-quo; the concept of ‘local cultural identity’ is abused to evade international queries; the word ‘pluralism’ or ‘heterogeneity’ are misused precisely to inculcate the need of unity or uniformity, etc. [4]
Thus, despite all the obvious emancipatory efforts of individual subjects in the cultural realm, in reality, individual is decentred and trapped in the intersections of paradoxical impressions and arbitrary impuls. The structure of one’s way of looking at her/himself falls apart and becomes fragmentary. People are too much aware today that the world of symbols are arbitrary, vulnerable, ambiguous and shifting.[5] Culture and knowledge are constructed and determined by relations of power. Identity and human subjectivity are no longer understood as a unified whole, but rather, as polymorphous, fragmented and without centre. Hence, the loss of nourishment of tradition is exacerbated by the feeling of alienation even within one’s own tradition. Basic categories, which in the past rendered reality and experience intelligible, are now called into question. Everything is viewed as contingent, insufficient, and lacking transcendence. The belief in objective or absolute truth is replaced by alternatives, ranging from radical relativism to negotiated concepts of truth.
In the realm of praxis, Asia seems to be plagued with loss of coherence and erosion of consistence, but also suffers from lack of cohesion. People even doubt, reasonably, the so called ‘Asian values’ or the dichotomy between East and West. The decline of traditional principles is exacerbated by the loss of normative discourse due to the critical movements of micro-politics of identity everywhere. Worse still, the use of terror in some forms of the movements has created the production of fear, contradictory certainties, an atmosphere of suspicion among each other, and intolerance toward differences. Hence, paranoia, solidification of identity, xenophobia, genocide, and the intensification of international systematic control over individuals. Like in the sixties, today again ‘the personal is political’. Even more, today ‘the personal is also economic’ in that capitalist technology is becoming more and more determinant in shaping the interiority of individual.[6] The dream factories of capitalism has brought about the illusion of liberty and satisfaction that disguises the impoverishment of individual’s self-determination. Individual self is under the pressure of heterodox and contradictory visions. Thus, personal creativity and independence are either under constant threats of tradition, religion, and politics, or absorbed by the ubiquitous capitalist machine of commerce. All this has put individual in the prison of many power structures, the prison of discordant polyphony of contradictory lines, hence the heterogeneity of subjectivity.
The Changing Art-World
At the beginning of this century, the visual arts have undergone significant changes, an unprecedented transformations in their character, identities, structures, and perceptions of what it means to be an artist. The category of ‘Visual Arts’ now encompasses a wide range of works, from painting, sculpture, to hybrid forms in previously unthinkable materials : human body in performance, invisible matter (gas), energy (telepathy), large scale projects and earthworks in remote landscapes or urban centres, interventions in social and political institutions, computer and other electronic works, postcards, records, video, etc.
The impact of this tendency of ‘dematerialization’ of art is a paradox. On the one hand, theoretical and methodological practices of art history are doubted and put under scrutiny; on the other, artist’s theoretical strategies become as important as their works of art, especially when the works are so unconventional and even ‘immaterial’. On the one hand, the arts come to blend more and more with daily activities and stripped off their philosophical pretense; on the other, arts become even more conceptual and philosophical.
“The end of art” is a statement that captures very well the paradigm change in the last four decades. [7] This is of course the aftermath of Duchamp and Warhol, that is, on the one hand Warhol perfected the Duchampian question of “what is art”, and so brought art into philosophical self-awareness; on the other, he precisely also deprived art of its philosophical pretense so that art henceforth could do whatsoever and became pluralistic: its practice pragmatic, its field multicultural. From the post-structuralist point of view, there is no more ‘art’, what exists is ‘representation’, to be understood in terms of textual production and psychological reception. In terms of Marxist perspective, art is overwhelmed by the practical dominance of the ‘image’, the visual, the primary form of commodity in a spectacle economy, from which art can no longer pretend to be distinct.
Corollary to this situation is that there is no more a single and strong paradigm for artistic or critical practice. This surely opens the way towards artistic diversity, although this may also mean a flat indifference, a stagnant incommensurability. Or perhaps commensurability is not important anymore, since there is this tendency that art is no more an object of contemplation but a means of communication and self-presentation, an act of self-determination and self-differentiation, or a never-ending process of life itself.
One thing is clear, however, that today art is not necessarily an artisan production. It becomes a process of mere personal and peculiar way of looking at things. The specific gaze of the artist is suffice to turn an object into an artwork. And by using computer, video, photography, etc. everybody can become an artist. The standard and benchmark of success of the works are similar to those of a pop band. It is judged not based on some sort of historical canon, but rather , in accordance with today’s level of dissemination of the product, indicated by its position in the classificatory list like Billboard Charts. Reflection is replaced by numeric-statistical assessment, words are replaced by numbers (numbers of visitors, of reviews, of the finance balance-sheet, recognition by colleagues, etc) . The inclusion or exclusion of certain artworks in an exhibition, museum, institutions, or gallery is no more decisive, although is still appreciated. Contemporary art is indeed the sequel of Avantgardism and Pop-art so that it bears the characters of pop-products, especially in that they emphasize the discontinue and a-historic newness of the here and now (hic et nunc), where consequently museums loses its power and significance. The history of the past is no more determinant. History becomes eternal present. Art then celebrates what is contextual, ephemeral and even banal. Everyday life is the new context and playground of today’s artists, since it is the repository of the potential to subvert and transform established values, and it is also the context for the re-invention of self and subjectivity.
Today art is also transgressive, in the Foucauldian sense of the word, that is, it explores borderlines to question their arbitrariness and cruelty. The border is a no-place, a meeting point and ground for creation as well as for questioning authority or any kind of fixated dualism (high-low, public-private, pure-hybrid, in group-out group, etc.). In Deleuzian sense of the word, today art is a micronarrative in progress, working through rhyzomatic networks in its production and dissemination of ideas, a collective project to nurture a plurality of ideas and to nourish interrelationship. Indeed, in the contemporary situation, art has been undergoing the extension of object, the intensification of appreciative experience, and the enlargement of scope.[8]
The Role of Art in Asia
As we have seen above, in most of Asian countries, global economico-cultural interactions as well as internal socio-political problems have created environments which are full of paradoxes. In such environment people are susceptible to moral and emotional disturbances. They live in multilayered reality which oftentimes are illusory and bewildering. To name some of the potential bewilderment, for instance, are : between the issue of global-village and the fact of disinformation; global-economy and the fact of barter practices; the frenzy of difference or pluralism and the reality of violent and intolerant politics of identity, etc. Art, as critical dialogue between experience, imagination and thought, would be of a good help in bringing forth these often hidden confusions and illusions to collective awareness in effective ways. The sensibility of the artists towards traumatic experience and incongruence would enable them to delve beneath the surface, oftentimes by way of problematizing and playing with the very surface. And this, in turn, would call for self-awareness of the artists themselves of the complexity and the illusory side of reality.
In a world characterized by the paradox between heterogeneity and homogeneity, between the oblivious frenzy of cultural heritage and ignorant enthusiasm of modernity, or between the fastidiousness about borders and the transgressive inclinations of global networking, if there is still something to celebrate, it would be the survival of the individual and the re-invention of identity. In such a world, however, identity is an ambiguous project. It is, in Deleuzian words, a micropolitics that embraces the global, that has to search for transversalities between the macroscopic social environment (the ‘molar’) and the subjective mental ecology (the ‘molecular’). In short, identity is something to be understood within the dynamic relationship with the other, a flux with its mutations of values, a malleable concept depending on the networks. In this junction, the power of art would lie in its capacity to identify where and how contemporary subjects seek refuge and protection; how the so called ‘identity’ (as fixated category) works as an illusory security blanket to hide powerless anger and helplessness. But in a more productive way, artists can support and initiate alternative spaces which introduce different power games and different networks, channeling new aspirations and thereby shaping an ever growing sense of self. In this way, while the peculiar art world seems to dissolved, its essential relation with the bigger human life is resolved.
Bambang Sugiharto, professor of philosophy, currently teaching at Parahyangan Catholic University and Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB), Bandung, Indonesia. He can be reached at: ignatiussugiharto@yahoo.com
N o t e s
[1] Milan Kundera, “The Tragedy of Central Europe”, New York Review of Books, vol. 31, no 7, April 25, 1984, p 36
[2] The basic root of modernity is usually conceived of as either Cartesian reflective subject or Kantian autonomous individual.
[3] While the primacy of rational subject is a sort of necessary prerequisite towards modernity, postmodern reflection found out that the very concept of subject is nothing but formation of discourse. Cfr. Michel Foucault in Paul Rabinow (ed), Michel Foucault: Ethics (New York : The New Press, 1997), pp 87 - 108
[4] This kind of manipulation of cultural issues are commonly practiced by authoritarian regimes, be it in Indonesia, in the Phillipines, or in Myanmar, etc.
[5] Saussurian Structuralism reveals the arbitrariness of meaning; whereas Derridean deconstruction has shown the potential instability of meaning in any kind of discourse or text.
[6] Concerning the position of individual subject within the latest capitalism, see Frederic Jameson, “Postmodernism and Consumer Society” in Hal Foster (ed) The Anti-Aesthetics : essays on Postmodern Culture ( Washington : Bay Press, 1983) p 111-20
[7] The claim became notorious due to the statement from Arthur Danto but soon other art critics seemed to follow and approve it as well. See Arthur Danto, Philosophical Disenfranchisement of Art ( New York : Columbia University Press,, 1986); Victor Burgin, The End of Art Theory : Criticism and Postmodernity (Atlantic Highlands, NJ : Humanities Press International, 1986); also T.Adorno, Negative Dialectics ( New York : Continuum, 1973)
[8] Arnold Berleant sees this as stages of evolution of awareness, which I take simply as different characters with no distinct period or stage. Cfr. Arnold Berleant, Rethinking Aesthetics ( Hampshire : Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2004) p 111
Bi b l i o g r a p h y
Adorno, Theodor, Negative Dialectics, trans. E.B.Ashton. (New York :Continuum, 1973)
Berleant, Arnold, Rethinking Aesthetics, (Burlington : Ashgate Publishing Company, 2004)
Burgin, Victor, The End of Art Theory : Criticism and Postmodernity (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press International, 1986)
Danto, Arthur, Philosophical Disenfranchisement of Art (New York : Columbia University Press, 1986)
_____________, After the End of Art (Princeton : Princeton University Press, 1997)
Deleuze, Gilles, Negotiations, (New York : Columbia University Press, 1995)
Deleuze, Gilles et al, A Thousand Plateaus ( London : Continuum, 2002)
Foucault, Michel, Ethics, in Paul Rabinow (ed), Michel; Foucault, Vol. I ( New York : New Press, 1983)
Stiles, Kristine, et al. (ed) Theories and Documents of Contemporary Art : A source Book of Artist’s Writings (Berkeley : University of California Press, 1996)
Wallis, Brian, Art After Modernism : Rethinking Representation (New York : The New Museum of Contemporary Art, 1984)
Art is always an articulation as well as a representation of the dynamics of culture and society. In terms of modernity most of Asian countries are newly emerging states. In various forms and dynamics they are struggling to grow and shape new modes of existence. In so doing, one way or another they tend to get trapped in dilemmatic situations. This paper seeks to articulate the multilayered dilemmatic situations and thereby tries to reformulate the role of art therein.
Asian Context
In the post-colonial era Asian countries were compelled to face a dilemma. On the one hand, they had to harness their own culture, tradition and resources to develop their countries, while getting rid of western tradition. On the other, almost at the same time they had to take part in the global networks of interaction, which often times means taking back the West as their model and basic orientation, and incessant problematization of their own heritage and tradition.
The problem is that, since the time of post-World-War the globalizing movement of the West had been so much fueled by politico-economic power and interests that the issue of ‘culture’ had gradually been losing its intrinsic value. If culture is a realm in which supreme values are enacted, symbols are crafted and peculiar meanings are created, the globalizing West seems to have lost the belief that culture really matters. As Milan Kundera puts it, the West has become ‘post-cultural’.[1] Just as the primacy of religion in the medieval was replaced by the new culture of modernity -with individual as its centre of creativity-, culture is now subjugated to the predominance of political discourse and economic interests.
For Asian countries the problem is, then, manifold. While in terms of political ideology and economic power they have to manage some sort of autonomy and to safeguard their own integrity; in terms of culture they have to catch up modernity by adopting western ethos and cultural pathos, at least at the initial period of their modernity. Politically, actions and idealism are commonly construed under the pretext of particularity, collectivity or cultural tradition. Economically, the touch of tradition and the exoticism of local colors are also considered central for doing business. Yet culturally, the prevalent ethos is the modern conviction that the ultimate authority of a society is neither tradition nor religion, but rather, individual -the thinking and doubting individual in particular. And the pathos is the pursuit of the modern ideal that mature individuals are those capable of articulating their own aspirations and shaping their own lives. [2] The problem is , by the time Asian countries are busy pursuing such modern formation of individual subject by orienting their cultural strategy to the West, in the modern West itself the discourse has already shifted to the other extreme end, that is, to the claims such as ‘the end of Human Subject’ (Foucault), ‘the death of the Author’ (Barthes), etc. This post-structuralist tendency discloses critical insight on various layers of structures by which cultural meanings and individual human self-awareness are unwittingly constructed, hence the relativization of the primacy of individual subject. [3]
In Asia the situation becomes more complicated due to the fact that some of Asian countries suffer from confusing paradoxes. The so called tradition and heritage oftentimes are nothing but political slogans with no clear content and power. In some countries the terms like ‘cultural identity’ and ‘tradition’ often bear pejorative and traumatic connotations, since they have too often been manipulated by authoritarian regimes; the so called ‘harmony’ is used as a mere strategy to defend status-quo; the concept of ‘local cultural identity’ is abused to evade international queries; the word ‘pluralism’ or ‘heterogeneity’ are misused precisely to inculcate the need of unity or uniformity, etc. [4]
Thus, despite all the obvious emancipatory efforts of individual subjects in the cultural realm, in reality, individual is decentred and trapped in the intersections of paradoxical impressions and arbitrary impuls. The structure of one’s way of looking at her/himself falls apart and becomes fragmentary. People are too much aware today that the world of symbols are arbitrary, vulnerable, ambiguous and shifting.[5] Culture and knowledge are constructed and determined by relations of power. Identity and human subjectivity are no longer understood as a unified whole, but rather, as polymorphous, fragmented and without centre. Hence, the loss of nourishment of tradition is exacerbated by the feeling of alienation even within one’s own tradition. Basic categories, which in the past rendered reality and experience intelligible, are now called into question. Everything is viewed as contingent, insufficient, and lacking transcendence. The belief in objective or absolute truth is replaced by alternatives, ranging from radical relativism to negotiated concepts of truth.
In the realm of praxis, Asia seems to be plagued with loss of coherence and erosion of consistence, but also suffers from lack of cohesion. People even doubt, reasonably, the so called ‘Asian values’ or the dichotomy between East and West. The decline of traditional principles is exacerbated by the loss of normative discourse due to the critical movements of micro-politics of identity everywhere. Worse still, the use of terror in some forms of the movements has created the production of fear, contradictory certainties, an atmosphere of suspicion among each other, and intolerance toward differences. Hence, paranoia, solidification of identity, xenophobia, genocide, and the intensification of international systematic control over individuals. Like in the sixties, today again ‘the personal is political’. Even more, today ‘the personal is also economic’ in that capitalist technology is becoming more and more determinant in shaping the interiority of individual.[6] The dream factories of capitalism has brought about the illusion of liberty and satisfaction that disguises the impoverishment of individual’s self-determination. Individual self is under the pressure of heterodox and contradictory visions. Thus, personal creativity and independence are either under constant threats of tradition, religion, and politics, or absorbed by the ubiquitous capitalist machine of commerce. All this has put individual in the prison of many power structures, the prison of discordant polyphony of contradictory lines, hence the heterogeneity of subjectivity.
The Changing Art-World
At the beginning of this century, the visual arts have undergone significant changes, an unprecedented transformations in their character, identities, structures, and perceptions of what it means to be an artist. The category of ‘Visual Arts’ now encompasses a wide range of works, from painting, sculpture, to hybrid forms in previously unthinkable materials : human body in performance, invisible matter (gas), energy (telepathy), large scale projects and earthworks in remote landscapes or urban centres, interventions in social and political institutions, computer and other electronic works, postcards, records, video, etc.
The impact of this tendency of ‘dematerialization’ of art is a paradox. On the one hand, theoretical and methodological practices of art history are doubted and put under scrutiny; on the other, artist’s theoretical strategies become as important as their works of art, especially when the works are so unconventional and even ‘immaterial’. On the one hand, the arts come to blend more and more with daily activities and stripped off their philosophical pretense; on the other, arts become even more conceptual and philosophical.
“The end of art” is a statement that captures very well the paradigm change in the last four decades. [7] This is of course the aftermath of Duchamp and Warhol, that is, on the one hand Warhol perfected the Duchampian question of “what is art”, and so brought art into philosophical self-awareness; on the other, he precisely also deprived art of its philosophical pretense so that art henceforth could do whatsoever and became pluralistic: its practice pragmatic, its field multicultural. From the post-structuralist point of view, there is no more ‘art’, what exists is ‘representation’, to be understood in terms of textual production and psychological reception. In terms of Marxist perspective, art is overwhelmed by the practical dominance of the ‘image’, the visual, the primary form of commodity in a spectacle economy, from which art can no longer pretend to be distinct.
Corollary to this situation is that there is no more a single and strong paradigm for artistic or critical practice. This surely opens the way towards artistic diversity, although this may also mean a flat indifference, a stagnant incommensurability. Or perhaps commensurability is not important anymore, since there is this tendency that art is no more an object of contemplation but a means of communication and self-presentation, an act of self-determination and self-differentiation, or a never-ending process of life itself.
One thing is clear, however, that today art is not necessarily an artisan production. It becomes a process of mere personal and peculiar way of looking at things. The specific gaze of the artist is suffice to turn an object into an artwork. And by using computer, video, photography, etc. everybody can become an artist. The standard and benchmark of success of the works are similar to those of a pop band. It is judged not based on some sort of historical canon, but rather , in accordance with today’s level of dissemination of the product, indicated by its position in the classificatory list like Billboard Charts. Reflection is replaced by numeric-statistical assessment, words are replaced by numbers (numbers of visitors, of reviews, of the finance balance-sheet, recognition by colleagues, etc) . The inclusion or exclusion of certain artworks in an exhibition, museum, institutions, or gallery is no more decisive, although is still appreciated. Contemporary art is indeed the sequel of Avantgardism and Pop-art so that it bears the characters of pop-products, especially in that they emphasize the discontinue and a-historic newness of the here and now (hic et nunc), where consequently museums loses its power and significance. The history of the past is no more determinant. History becomes eternal present. Art then celebrates what is contextual, ephemeral and even banal. Everyday life is the new context and playground of today’s artists, since it is the repository of the potential to subvert and transform established values, and it is also the context for the re-invention of self and subjectivity.
Today art is also transgressive, in the Foucauldian sense of the word, that is, it explores borderlines to question their arbitrariness and cruelty. The border is a no-place, a meeting point and ground for creation as well as for questioning authority or any kind of fixated dualism (high-low, public-private, pure-hybrid, in group-out group, etc.). In Deleuzian sense of the word, today art is a micronarrative in progress, working through rhyzomatic networks in its production and dissemination of ideas, a collective project to nurture a plurality of ideas and to nourish interrelationship. Indeed, in the contemporary situation, art has been undergoing the extension of object, the intensification of appreciative experience, and the enlargement of scope.[8]
The Role of Art in Asia
As we have seen above, in most of Asian countries, global economico-cultural interactions as well as internal socio-political problems have created environments which are full of paradoxes. In such environment people are susceptible to moral and emotional disturbances. They live in multilayered reality which oftentimes are illusory and bewildering. To name some of the potential bewilderment, for instance, are : between the issue of global-village and the fact of disinformation; global-economy and the fact of barter practices; the frenzy of difference or pluralism and the reality of violent and intolerant politics of identity, etc. Art, as critical dialogue between experience, imagination and thought, would be of a good help in bringing forth these often hidden confusions and illusions to collective awareness in effective ways. The sensibility of the artists towards traumatic experience and incongruence would enable them to delve beneath the surface, oftentimes by way of problematizing and playing with the very surface. And this, in turn, would call for self-awareness of the artists themselves of the complexity and the illusory side of reality.
In a world characterized by the paradox between heterogeneity and homogeneity, between the oblivious frenzy of cultural heritage and ignorant enthusiasm of modernity, or between the fastidiousness about borders and the transgressive inclinations of global networking, if there is still something to celebrate, it would be the survival of the individual and the re-invention of identity. In such a world, however, identity is an ambiguous project. It is, in Deleuzian words, a micropolitics that embraces the global, that has to search for transversalities between the macroscopic social environment (the ‘molar’) and the subjective mental ecology (the ‘molecular’). In short, identity is something to be understood within the dynamic relationship with the other, a flux with its mutations of values, a malleable concept depending on the networks. In this junction, the power of art would lie in its capacity to identify where and how contemporary subjects seek refuge and protection; how the so called ‘identity’ (as fixated category) works as an illusory security blanket to hide powerless anger and helplessness. But in a more productive way, artists can support and initiate alternative spaces which introduce different power games and different networks, channeling new aspirations and thereby shaping an ever growing sense of self. In this way, while the peculiar art world seems to dissolved, its essential relation with the bigger human life is resolved.
Bambang Sugiharto, professor of philosophy, currently teaching at Parahyangan Catholic University and Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB), Bandung, Indonesia. He can be reached at: ignatiussugiharto@yahoo.com
N o t e s
[1] Milan Kundera, “The Tragedy of Central Europe”, New York Review of Books, vol. 31, no 7, April 25, 1984, p 36
[2] The basic root of modernity is usually conceived of as either Cartesian reflective subject or Kantian autonomous individual.
[3] While the primacy of rational subject is a sort of necessary prerequisite towards modernity, postmodern reflection found out that the very concept of subject is nothing but formation of discourse. Cfr. Michel Foucault in Paul Rabinow (ed), Michel Foucault: Ethics (New York : The New Press, 1997), pp 87 - 108
[4] This kind of manipulation of cultural issues are commonly practiced by authoritarian regimes, be it in Indonesia, in the Phillipines, or in Myanmar, etc.
[5] Saussurian Structuralism reveals the arbitrariness of meaning; whereas Derridean deconstruction has shown the potential instability of meaning in any kind of discourse or text.
[6] Concerning the position of individual subject within the latest capitalism, see Frederic Jameson, “Postmodernism and Consumer Society” in Hal Foster (ed) The Anti-Aesthetics : essays on Postmodern Culture ( Washington : Bay Press, 1983) p 111-20
[7] The claim became notorious due to the statement from Arthur Danto but soon other art critics seemed to follow and approve it as well. See Arthur Danto, Philosophical Disenfranchisement of Art ( New York : Columbia University Press,, 1986); Victor Burgin, The End of Art Theory : Criticism and Postmodernity (Atlantic Highlands, NJ : Humanities Press International, 1986); also T.Adorno, Negative Dialectics ( New York : Continuum, 1973)
[8] Arnold Berleant sees this as stages of evolution of awareness, which I take simply as different characters with no distinct period or stage. Cfr. Arnold Berleant, Rethinking Aesthetics ( Hampshire : Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2004) p 111
Bi b l i o g r a p h y
Adorno, Theodor, Negative Dialectics, trans. E.B.Ashton. (New York :Continuum, 1973)
Berleant, Arnold, Rethinking Aesthetics, (Burlington : Ashgate Publishing Company, 2004)
Burgin, Victor, The End of Art Theory : Criticism and Postmodernity (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press International, 1986)
Danto, Arthur, Philosophical Disenfranchisement of Art (New York : Columbia University Press, 1986)
_____________, After the End of Art (Princeton : Princeton University Press, 1997)
Deleuze, Gilles, Negotiations, (New York : Columbia University Press, 1995)
Deleuze, Gilles et al, A Thousand Plateaus ( London : Continuum, 2002)
Foucault, Michel, Ethics, in Paul Rabinow (ed), Michel; Foucault, Vol. I ( New York : New Press, 1983)
Stiles, Kristine, et al. (ed) Theories and Documents of Contemporary Art : A source Book of Artist’s Writings (Berkeley : University of California Press, 1996)
Wallis, Brian, Art After Modernism : Rethinking Representation (New York : The New Museum of Contemporary Art, 1984)
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